Human Development & Quantitative Methodology Theses and Dissertations

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The Relationship between Overt Verbal Attitude Responses toward Cheating Behavior, Achievement Needs, and Cheating on Test Items
(1967) Alvernaz Mulcahy, Gloria Lorraine; Lawson, John R.; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between overt verbal attitude responses of college students toward cheating behavior, achievement needs, and cheating behavior on test items. A further purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between grades and/or the number of errors made on an exam and cheating or non-cheating behavior. Procedure: The sample was comprised of sixty-six subjects-thirty- three cheaters and thirty-three non-cheaters. A stratified random sample was drawn from 184 students in six sections of Education 110 classes at the University of Maryland. The cheaters were matched with a group of noncheaters by sex and class. The data was obtained in three separate experimental sessions. During the first session a 35 item multiple-response attitude measure was administered to the subjects during the usual class period. Attitude toward cheating in a college setting was assessed utilizing an instrument developed by the writer in a pilot study. The second experimental session occurred one week after the presentation of the attitude measure. The McClelland n Achievement measure was administered using a set of four TAT-type pictures used to elicit imaginative stories which could be scored for the presence or absence of achievement related imagery. The third experimental session occurred two weeks after the administration of the n Achievement measure. During the third session the professor was absent from class by prior arrangement. The writer presented a twenty minute taped lecture which focused upon elementary statistical concepts. Immediately following the taped lecture the subjects were administered a 30 item multiple-response test. Subjects were provided with an opportunity to exhibit cheating behavior in a classroom setting while correcting their own examination papers after a copy of their original responses was surreptitiously recorded. Findings: 1. There were no differences in verbal attitude responses toward cheating behavior between subjects who exhibited cheating behavior and those who did not. 2. There were no differences in achievement needs between subjects who exhibited cheating behavior and those who did not. 3. There were differences in the number of errors made by subjects who exhibited cheating behavior and those who did not. 4. There were no differences in grades between subjects who exhibited cheating behavior and those who did not. 5. There were no differences in cheating and noncheating behavior between subjects who scored high and low on a verbal (written) measure of attitudes toward cheating. 16. There were no differences in cheating and noncheating behavior bet ween subjects with high and low need achievement scores.
The Effect of a Sub-culturally Appropriate Language upon Achievement in Mathematical Content
(1970) Knight, Genevieve M.; Walbesser, Henry H.; Mathematics Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
In this investigation one hypothesis was considered. The question--does the use of a sub-culturally appropriate language have an effect upon achievement in an academic content--was tested. The subjects used in this investigation were children in a Follow Through Program in a school which is located in a disadvantaged neighborhood. None of the subjects had been in school for more than three years. The sample was a typical representation of the enrollment of schools in the city of Washington , D.C.-- 98 percent of the subjects were black. The instructional sequence was composed of concepts from nonmetric geometry. The language patterns used for the sub-culturally appropriate language were obtain ed from a two-year study in the speech-community of the given school. These language patterns were analyzed and classified by the Center for Applied Linguistics. After the instructional sequence was constructed, a parallel instructional sequence was rewritten in a subculturally appropriate language. Two groups of randomly assigned subjects were taught the appropriate sequence and given appropriate assessment tasks. The subjects taught and assessed using a subculturally appropriate language were able to successfully perform more task on the assessment task than those subjects who were taught and assessed using standard language. Hence, there exists some evidence to support the hypothesis that a sub-culturally appropriate language does have some effect upon achievement in academic content. The hypothesis was supported at the 0.05 level of significance. These findings suggest that further research is needed for the identification of contributing variables and the degree of interaction of each of these variables.
An Examination of the Effects of Three Testing Techniques on Word Accuracy, Comprehension, Rate, and Percentages of Semantic Substitutions in Oral Reading
(1972) Stafford, Gerald Edward; Sullivan, Dorothy D.; Early Childhood Elementary Education; University of Maryland (College Park, Md); Digital Repository at the University of Maryland
Authoritative opinion of long standing has recommended that purposes for reading be established prior to reading. In spite of such recommendations, testing procedures for oral reading typically have not involved reading for purposes. Furthermore, research designed to examine the effectiveness of reading for purposes has generally produced divergent findings. Superior reading performance has been observed when purposes for reading were established prior to reading as well as when they were not established prior to reading. Moreover, research designed to examine the effectiveness of purposeful reading has been confined almost exclusively to the area of silent reading. To date not a single investigation has been found which clearly illustrated the effects of purposes for reading on oral reading performance. The present study was designed to investigate the relationships between three testing techniques and performance on four dimensions of oral reading performance. The three testing techniques employed in this study were identified as (1) careful reading, (2) reading for specific purposes, and (3) reading for general purposes. The four dimensions of oral reading performance on which comparisons were made involved oral reading word accuracy, comprehension, rate, and the percentages of semantic substitutions. The four research hypotheses examined in the investigation are stated as follows: 1. There is a difference in oral reading word accuracy under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 2. There is a difference in oral reading comprehension under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 3. There is a difference in oral reading rate under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 4. There is a difference in the percentages of semantic substitutions made under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. To obtain data for this study, forty-five third grade and forty-five sixth grade subjects were randomly selected from two elementary schools. The ninety subjects chosen for the study were then randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups. Each subject was requested to read orally in the manner dictated by the treatment group to which he had been assigned. The materials from which subjects read were the appropriate passages from Form A of the Gilmore Oral Reading Test (1852). Measurements for oral reading word accuracy, comprehension, rate, and percentages of semantic substitutions were computed for each subject. A 2x3 analysis of variance design was used to test for differential treatment effects. An analysis of the data from the study indicted that none of the research hypotheses was supported at the .05 level of significance. The present study led to recommendations in the areas of theory, diagnosis, teaching, and research. Authoritative opinion has suggested that many of the classification schemes used for analyzing oral reading errors are a theoretical. It is possible that performance differences not evidenced through the classification scheme employed in this study could be found using a classification scheme having a sounder theoretical basis. It was therefore recommended that the effects of the three treatments employed in this study be reexamined using a classification scheme built around a theory of reading. In contrast to investigation in the area of silent reading, the present study did not evidence differences in reading performance under the treatments employed. The failure of oral reading performance to vary in the manner observed for silent reading suggested that the two forms of reading are in some respects dissimilar. It was therefore recommended that that diagnostic procedures include measures of both oral and silent reading . Recent investigation has suggested that children often need greater skill in reading for different purposes. One possible explanation for why differential treatment effects were not obtained in the present study was that subjects did not have skill in reading for different purposes. The recommendation was made, therefore, that classroom teachers place greater. emphasis on teaching children to read for different purposes. The following recommendations were made for the area of research. (1) It was recommended that research be undertaken to develop measures of oral reading comprehension, rate, and percentages of semantic substitutions which have greater test-retest reliability. (2) The sample chosen for this study was restricted to third and sixth graders whose performance on a standardized silent reading test placed them in the second or third quartile of the normative population. A replication of this study using subjects from other grade and performance levels was recommended. (3) It was recommended that investigation be undertaken to further examine the relationships between oral and silent reading. Special consideration should be given to identifying those factors in which a satisfactory generalization from oral reading to silent reading can be made. (4) This study did not evidence differential treatment effects using reading materials and purposes for reading supplied by an examiner. It was recommended that investigation be undertaken to examine the effectiveness of using pupil-selected materials and pupil purposes for reading.
The Effects of Student Decision Making Upon Spelling Achievement and Attitude Toward the Spelling Curriculum
(1973) Gambrell, Linda B.; Wilson, Robert M.; Early Childhood Elementary Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether spelling achievement and attitude toward the spelling curriculum differ under three different approaches to decision making i n the spelling curriculum. The three different approaches to decision making were: (1) teacher decision making (T1), (2) combination teacher and student decision making (T2), and (J) student decision making (T3). With respect to the three different approaches to decision making , the second purpose of the study was to determine whether spelling achievement and attitude toward spelling were differentially affected by grade level . The population was forty volunteer teachers and their classrooms in Prince Georges County, Maryland. Each third, fourth, and fifth grade classroom was randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. In T1 the teacher made decisions for students concerning the spelling content and spelling study methods, in T2 the students made decisions concerning the spelling content and the teacher made decisions concerning study methods, and in T3 the students made decisions concerning both the content and study methods related to the spelling curriculum. In this study student decision making was implemented through the use of a contracting procedure. Data for this study consisted of four scores for each student: (1) Spelling Achievement Test (pretest), ( 2) Spelling Achievement Test (post-test), (J) tabulation of total number of words spelled correctly on weekly spelling tests, and (4) Spelling Attitude Scale. Classroom mean scores provided the basic data for analysis. The data were analyzed by means of analysis of variance and covariance procedures employing a J x J factorial design. The following conclusions were supported: (1) There is no difference in spelling achievement under (a) teacher decision making (T1), (b) combination teacher and student decision making (T2) , and (c) student decision making (T3). (2) There is no interaction effect between the different degrees of student decision making and grade levels on spelling achievement . (J) There is no difference in attitude toward the spelling curriculum under the three different degrees of student decision making. (4) There is no interaction effect between the different degrees of student decision making and grade levels in attitude toward the spelling curriculum. The following implication for theory was suggested by this investigations Student decision making appears to result in student achievement and attitude that is equivalent to that under teacher decision making in the spelling curriculum. Students appear to be effective in determining content and study methods in the spelling curriculum. Theorjes of decision making must be developed which deal with decision making as it relates to the learning process. The data suggest the following implications for teaching , (1) In learning situations where students can be involved in currjculum decision making , they may learn as willingly and satisfactorily as under teacher decision making. (2) Contracting is an effective and practical technique for individualizing instruction and incorporating student decision making in the spelling curriculum. Implications for research as suggested by this investigation include the following, (1) There is a need to investigate the effects of student decision making upon achievement and attitude by (a) using more broadly representative samples of students, (b) looking at effects over a longer period of time, (c) using different testing instruments, or (d) implementing student decision making in other areas of the curriculum. (2) Student decision making effects might be interwoven with the quality of the negotiation between the teacher and the student, especially with respect to the provisions for commitment , success, and feedback concerning growth in decision making. An in depth analysis of the negotiation interaction might provide useful information concerning the effectiveness of specific aspects of the negotiation procedure. (3) An in depth analysis which would compare the achievement and attitude of individual students under different degrees of student decision making may reveal information concerning the most effective decision making situation for the individual student.
A Three-Dimensional Theory of Group Process in Adolescent Dyads
(1974) Armstrong, Stephen H.; Hatfield, Agnes; Institute for Child Study; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
This dissertation tests a three-dimensional theory of group process originally proposed by William Schutz (1958) . His theory is that three process variables can account for group interaction: Inclusion, the degree to which persons in a group feel "in," "a part of" the group; Control, the degree to which persons can command and direct the group's resources, means, and goals; and Affection, the degree of relatedness that persons in the group feel for one another. Eighty-nine tenth grade suburban high school students completed a sociometric rating of their intact homeroom classes, and twenty-four pairs of students were randomly selected to participate in the experimental portion of the study. The dyads were selected along the Inclusion and Affection dimensions, each at two levels. Each pair played eight ten-choice games of "Prisoner's Dilemma, " a two-person, two-choice nonzero sum game, under an experimental instruction set of "trust and cooperation." The eight payoff matrices were systematically varied to provide two levels of Asymmetry and two levels of Fate Control, which are taken as the operational equivalent of the Control dimension. The matrices were randomly ordered for each pair. The design is a 2^4 factorial with repeated measures over two dimensions, analyzed as analysis of variance. The data is analyzed only for those matrices which give less payoff ("go against") the first player in the dyad to make a choice, since these matrices alone offer an incentive to trust the partner. There are six dependent variables in this study: (1) one's own number of trusting choices in each ten-choice game; (2) the partner's number of trusting choices; (3) one's total estimate of the partner's trustworthiness; (4) one's total number of years in jail; (5) the partner's total number of years in jail; and (6) the combined number of years in jail for both players. The results show a significant effect only for Fate Control, and only on three dependent variables: (1) total estimate of the partner's trustworthiness; (2) one's total number of years in jail, and (3) the partner's total number of years in jail. In general, the level of trusting behavior was high across all experimental conditions. The results are only partial support for the theory of group interaction. Fate Control is the one operational dimension most clearly linked with the experimental task demands, and therefore cannot be seen as strong support of Schutz's theory, especially in view of the lack of significant results on any other dimension. Affection, Inclusion, and Asymmetry of the payoff matrix were not significantly associated with any dependent variable. Second, factors beyond the experimenter's control may have contributed to the null results. For instance, students may have been "loyally" trusting to other students at a very high level perhaps because of their role vis a vis adult authority as manifested by the experimenter. Moreover, an overall lack of interpersonal interaction in the homeroom setting may have attenuated the results. Third, there is wide variance for each of the dependent variables, small effect size, and, consequently, the heightened chance of a Type II error. Moreover, the dependent variables are highly correlated, further limiting the potency of this experimental test. Finally, Schultz's theory is one of process, and the variables used in this study can capture this process only insofar as the dyad's structure reflects the process. To the extent that the structural measurements used in this study may not fully reflect palpable interpersonal process, the experiment, not the theory, may be held deficient. In summary, this attempt to empirically assess this three-dimensional theory of group process is not wholely successful. The experimental analogue situation (the Prisoner's Dilemma) gives only partial support to the theory.
Self-Concept and Race: Basis for Reactions to a Short Story?
(1976) Reggy, Mae Alice Turner; Secondary Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The purpose of this study was to assess the identification responses of black female tenth-grade readers in relationship to the reader's self-concept and the race -- black or white -- of the central character in an investigator-constructed short story. The problem under investigation centers around two major probes: 1. Do black female readers identify more with a white central character than with a black central character? 2. Do the self-concepts of black female readers influence their capacity to identify with a central character in a short story? The study has significance for the potential contribution it may make in helping teachers, librarians, curriculum supervisors and others understand the ways in which black female tenth-grade readers respond to characters in a particular short story and select written works accordingly. A sample of 24 black female tenth-graders in a creative arts high school in the D.C. Public Schools reacted to two versions of an investigator-constructed short story about the physical self-concept of a black (version A1) and white (version A2) central character. Divided into two groups (A, B), the subjects responded to version A1 or A2 using a questionnaire constructed by the investigator to measure the subjects' identification responses. Both groups were administered the Personal Orientation Inventory, a standardized test used to measure their self-concept. Data from these two instruments were analyzed using a standard t test and a Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient to test the following research hypotheses: H1 The mean score for Group A as measured by the Self-Involvement Questionnaire will be greater than the mean score for Group B. H2 There is a positive correlation between students' scores obtained on the Self-Involvement Questionnaire and scores obtained on the Personal Orientation Inventory. The findings of the study lead to the conclusions that, within the limitation and implementation procedures of the study, the self-concepts of black female readers have an effect upon their capacity to identify with the central character in a short story. Students with high self-concepts tended to identify with the central character in a short story regardless of the race of the central character and, conversely, that students with low self-concepts tended to reject the central character, black or white. The study also showed that black, tenth-grade female readers do not identify more with a black central character than with a white central character. The major implication for teaching is that teachers, librarians, curriculum supervisors and others need to consider the self-concepts of their students in selecting and assigning written works.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CORE JOB DIMENSIONS, PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES, AND PERSONAL AND WORK OUTCOMES AMONG PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS
(1976) Gorsuch, Robert Allan; Dudley, James; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The Job Characteristics Model of Work Motivation was developed on the bases of prior research and theory in the area of work redesign. The purpose of this study was to determine the applicability of this model for predicting worker-job interaction among one group of public sector employees-teachers. A sample of 90 full-time teachers was selected from one public school system in Maryland. The Job Diagnostic Survey was administered to all subjects as a measure of most of the variables presented in the job characteristics model. Personnel records were used to obtain absenteeism and performance data. These data were analyzed through zero-order and multiple regression analyses. Five primary research questions were posed regarding the validity of the job characteristics model. First, relationships between core job dimensions and model specified worker psychological states were investigated. Findings indicated a need to reexamine the core job dimensions in terms of how well they measured all aspects of the job of teaching. The psychological states were examined relevant to their dual role as mediating variables, and as predictors of personal and work outcomes. It was found that the psychological states appeared to measure similar constructs and did not account for the total psychological set of teachers in terms of personal and work outcomes. However, significant correlations were reported between the combined psychological states and these outcomes. Growth need strength as a moderator of relationships between core job dimensions and psychological states and personal and work outcomes was determined to be ineffective. Teachers generally scored high on this measure and little variance was reported. It was concluded that an alternative individual difference moderator variable be used in subsequent tests of the model. Four secondary research questions were addressed to determine teacher levels of personal and work outcomes and growth need strength. A motivating potential score for the job of teaching was also derived. Comparisons of these data with data reported for business work groups indicated that teachers were very similar, as a group, to business work groups. Mean scores for the core job dimensions, and consequently the motivating potential score for teaching, was found to be higher than those in the comparison groups. Recommendations were made to revise the job characteristics model in terms of teacher data. It was suggested that absenteeism data not be used with work groups where there was little incentive to avoid being absent from work. If individual differences among workers were to be measured in terms of a moderator variable, something other than individual growth need strength should be used. Finally, it was recommended that a valid measure of teacher performance be used for further tests of the job characteristics model.
Suburban Runaways: A Follow-Up Study
(1976) Olson, Lucy; Davidson, Marie; Institute for Child Study; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
This study grew out of an investigation begun twelve years ago on runaway youth from a Maryland suburb of Washington, D.C . The children who participated in the original study have since grown up and the current research was undertaken to find out how they fared over this important interval. The current study addressed itself to several aspects of social functioning among the young people in the sample. The questions were: 1) How have the former runaways experienced school, jobs, and "trouble" ? 2) Do their experiences within these dimensions differ from those of their siblings? and 3) Do the former runaways differ among themselves -- repeaters from non-repeaters -- in their experiences at school, on the job, and "in trouble"? These questions provided the focus for the follow-up study. The sample consisted of young people between 23 and 27 years of age who had been interviewed in depth during an earlier study and their non-runaway siblings who were closest in age and, where possible, of the same sex as the former runaways. Both former runaways and their siblings were interviewed in depth using a fixed-schedule, open-response approach. Questions focussed on social development over the last dozen years and particularly on experiences in school, on the job, and "in trouble". The data were presented in a series of composite "cases" or profiles taken from the experiences of several of the former runaways and their siblings. School, jobs, and "trouble" were each treated separately, and selected comparisons were made between the experiences of former runaways and those of their siblings. The follow-up study revealed that those who ran away experienced considerable hardship during this twelve-year interval en route to adulthood. They curtailed their schooling because of difficulty and unhappiness in the classroom. They have worked only sporadically at menial jobs which have been experienced as frustrating drudgery. They have gotten in trouble with the law or have required the assistance of social agencies and institutions because of special problems they have had. Differences between former runaways and their siblings were found in each of the areas of school, jobs, and "trouble". The young people who ran away experienced gr eater difficulty in school than their siblings: they fared worse academically, had poorer grades, and more retentions . They also had greater difficulty in adjusting socially. They were more often dismissed from class, sent to visit the principal, and suspended from school. Less than half of the former runaways have regular jobs today. The others have been unable to hold a job for more than a period of months. This finding contrasts sharply with that for their siblings all but one of whom are now working at regular jobs. Moreover, the siblings have more professional , hi g her paying jobs than the former runaways who work . Finally, the former runaways have had a greater amount of trouble -- much of it more serious-- than their siblings. Most have been charged with offenses ranging in seriousness from "drunk and disorderly" to "burglary" and "assault and battery". Two are now serving jail terms. In contrast, only two siblings have been arrested and, in both cases, the charges were dropped . The findings were similar for nervous and emotional troubles. In all the areas of functioning that were examined, the young people who ran away from home repeatedly appear to have fared worse than those who ran only once. A further, serendipidous finding, not anticipated in this study, was a class difference: middle-class runaways appear to be functioning more poorly than their working-class counterparts .
A Study of the Effects on Attitude and Achievement of Mode of Processing in a Secondary School Course in Computer Programming
(1976) Moulds, William Joseph; Walbesser, Henry; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md); ILLiad # 1354711
achievement of frequency of association with the computer and turnaround time in a beginning course in computer programming in the secondary school. The treatments frequency (F) and turn-around time (T) each existed at three levels. The frequency treatment involved the number of hours per semester the students were in direct association The three levels were: HO - one hour per semester with the computer. Hl - one hour per week per semester; and, H3 - three hours per week per semester. The second treatment, turn-around time, dealt with the time delay experienced by the student between submittal of his program deck and return of his printout. This treatment existed at the following three levels: PI-printouts returned on the same day as submittal of the program; PD-printouts returned in about 24 hours; and, PW-printouts returned in about one week. At the beginning of the course, each student was administered the Aptitude Test for Programming Personnel to determine his aptitude in programming and to serve as a covariate in the analysis of covariance, A multiple choice final examination was administered to all students at the end of the 16 week semester to test their understanding of FORTRAN programming concepts. A 3 x 3 analysis of covariance design, using the aptitude scores for covariate, was used to analyze the results. This analysis served as the basis for conclusions to the following research hypotheses. 1. More frequent access to the computer increases performance. 2. Immediacy of feedback increases student achievement. The first hypothesis is supported by the findings of this experiment. Students in direct association with the computer most frequently (three hours per week) scored significantly higher on the final examination at the .05 level than students in either of the other two levels of this treatment. The second hypothesis is also supported by the findings. Students who received their printouts in less than one day scored significantly higher at the .05 level on the final examination than students receiving their printouts in about one day. Those receiving their printouts in about one week scored significantly lower than either of the other two groups. The effects on attitude were tested using a Likert-type scaled instrument. Analysis of covariance, using the aptitude score as covariate on a 3 x 3 design, was used to analyze the results which served as the basis for conclusions concerning the following research hypotheses. 3. More frequent access to the computer results in a more positive attitude by the students toward the computer. 4. Immediacy of feedback of computer programs results in a more positive attitude by the students toward the computer. The third hypothesis is not supported by the findings of this experiment. Students who were in the direct association with the computer three hours per week scored significantly lower at the .05 level on the attitude instrument than students who were in the one hour per semester group. The fourth hypothesis is not supported by the findings of this experiment. These conclusions are discussed in terms of earlier research in the effects of mode of processing on student learning of programming concepts and feedback schedules. In addition, suggestions for further research are offered.
The Effect of White Noise on Short- and Long-Term Recall in Hyperactive Boys
(1977) Arbuckle, Norma Jean; Davidson, Marie S.; Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The purpose of this research investigation was to determine whether an auditory arouser in the form of 2-minute bursts of 75 decibels of white noise (WN) might be used to facilitate short- and long-term recall for hyperactive boys. An attempt was made to determine whether the stimulus was most effective if it was presented (a) before acquisition, (b) before the recall tests, or (c) both before acquisition and before the recall tests. Hyperactivity was operationally defined as a score of eight or more on the Conners' Teacher's Questionnaire. The subjects for the study were 36 boys who had received the criterion score or more on the Questionnaire which had been completed by the regular classroom teacher of each child. The boys were between the ages of 8.50 and 12.75 years. Ten hypotheses were tested using two types of tasks. A silently read paragraphs task consistently preceded a tape-recorded paragraphs task. Each task was followed by the administration of two halves of a test. The first half of the test for each task was given at a 2- minute interval and the second half of the test for each task was given at a 24-hour interval. The scores for each half test were subjected to a separate analysis. Thus, four half tests were administered and four separate analyses were conducted. The half test analyses were named for their order of presentation. Each boy was randomly assigned to one of four noise-condition groups. Each child was retained in the same noise condition for each of the tasks. Nine boys heard no noise (NN) before acquisition and NN before recall tests, nine boys heard Wl~ before acquisition but NN before recall tests, nine boys heard NN before acquisition but ~m before recall tests, and nine boys heard WN before acquisition and WN before the recall tests. The scores obtained on Occasion 1 were analyzed by a 2 x 2 (noise condition prior to acquisition x noise condition prior to recall) analysis of covariance. Age served as the covariate. The scores obtained on each of Occasions 2, 3, and 4 were analyzed by a 2 x 2 (noise condition prior to acquisition x noise condition prior to recall) analysis of variance. Neither the analysis of covariance for Occasion 1, nor the analyses of variance for Occasions 2, 3~ or 4 yielded significant ! values for any of the criterion measures. The mean criterion scores for the four noise-condition groups did not differ significantly on any of the four occasions. However, in the case of the tape-recorded paragraphs task, eight of the ten hypotheses did predict the directionality of the mean scores. Nevertheless, since the findings were not significant, it was concluded that the data did not support the notion ·that white noise could be utilized to facilitate either short- or long-term recall of either a silently read paragraphs task or a tape-recorded paragraphs task. The temporal location of WN did not appear to be an important variable. Several possible explanations for the findings were offered. The difficulties in obtaining hyperactive subjects from a single environment and of ascertaining information about their attributes were discussed. The possibility that the dependent variables used in the study were not reliable or not sensitive to quantitative research was considered. Finally, it was suggested that a more homogeneous group of boys be used in future research studies, that an attempt be made to obtain larger numbers of subjects than were used in this study, that different dependent variables be utilized, and that white noise be administered over many trials for longer periods of time.
STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF AND RESPONSES TO OPPORTUNITIES FOR DECISION MAKING AND USE OF COMMUNITY IN FIVE PUBLIC SECONDARY ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS
(1977) McBride, Mary; Grambs, Jean; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
In the late 1960's the educational literature reported the emergence of a distinct kind of public school labeled "alternative." This term was used to describe a variety of school programs. Within this group of schools were several which claimed to offer students opportunities for individual and collective decision making and use of the community as a learning resource. The purpose of this study was to examine five such public secondary alternative schools, the perceptions of students concerning these opportunities, and their responses to these opportunities. The research questions for the study were: 1. Do students in the five schools see these schools offering all students opportunities to make decisions (a) individually concerning their learning and (b) as a group concerning the governance of the school as the schools' literature purports? 2. Do students in the five schools see these schools offering all students opportunities to use the community as a learning resource? 3. How important were the opportunities to make individual learning decisions and use the community as a learning resource in students' decisions to attend the alternative school? 4. Given these opportunities, what choices did a sampling of students actually make? The methods of data collection were: 1. a review of each school's literature to document the opportunities reported available; 2. researcher observations of selected activities and the environments of the five schools; 3. a questionnaire developed by the researcher voluntarily completed by the students; 4. interviews with students who had completed the questionnaire; and 5. interviews with a staff person in each of the five schools. Students' responses were reported in the form of actual numbers, percentages, and mean scores. The opportunities for individual decision making to be examined were those the schools' literature reported were available: (1) grade options, (2) independent study, and (3) evaluation of courses and instructors. All schools reported that some type of all-school meeting was involved in the governance of the school. Students reported the mechanics of the meetings and the range of authority of the meetings. Schools reported use of outside speakers and community persons in the schools and the opportunity for students to take outside learning activities. Students were asked to describe the extent to which these opportunities were available and the types of outside learning activities they pursued. The conclusions of the study were: 1. The opportunities to make learning decisions and use the community as a learning resource were important factors in students' decisions to attend; however, "other" factors such as peer pressure within their former schools and better student-teacher relationships in the alternative school were also important. 2. Students reported that they had a range of grade options, opportunities for independent study, and for evaluation of their courses and instructors. 3. Students knew that their schools had all-school meetings, but they were generally confused regarding the meeting's authority on a variety of issues. 4. Students perceived that they had the opportunity to use the community as a learning resource. 5. Although students reported having the opportunity to make learning decisions, over half the students did not take independent study. Almost as many reported that they did not take an outside learning activity. 6. Those who did take independent study and outside learning activities did so in a quarter or less of their courses. 7. The types of outside learning activities which students pursued varied. Students came to the alternative school partly because of the opportunities that the schools claimed to offer them. Students perceived generally that they had the opportunities which the schools claimed to offer. Some students participated in all activities; some participated selectively; some did not use any of the opportunities available.
The Effects of Test-Taking Skills and Attitudes on Validity of Standardized Achievement Test Scores of Inner-City Children
(1977) Romberg, Elaine; Schafer, William D.; Measurement and Statistics; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
This study explored the relationship between test-wiseness and the validity of standardized achievement test scores. Test-wiseness has been suggested by R.L. Thorndike (1951) to be a contributor of invalid, systematic variance in test scores. An attempt, through training, was made to reduce this invalid true score variance. Since a reduction in true score variance without a concomitant reduction in error variance should result in lowered reliability, one might expect that validity would therefore also be reduced. The assumption was made, for the purposes of this study, that test-wiseness variance functions in a manner similar to a suppressor variable. When invalid, systematic variance is decreased on a predictor, the true score relationship between predictor and criterion will be enhanced. In this way, the test becomes a "purer" predictor of the criterion and validity is increased. In this study, reduction of invalid, systematic true score test-wiseness variance in the predictor (the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, CTBS) was thus expected to result in a higher correlation between the CTBS and a criterion of teacher report card marks. Subjects in this study were fourth graders from a low socio-economic area of a large metropolitan city. The experimental group consisted of 401 children from seventeen classrooms in five elementary schools while the control group numbered 410 children from seventeen classrooms in nine schools. The seventeen teachers taking part in the research attended an introductory seminar and monthly meetings aimed at teaching them about test-wiseness and the specific test simulations they would be leading. Teachers led nineteen test simulations, one each week over a six-month period. Each lesson involved a practice test and children were expected to learn pre-determined test-taking skills and attitudes through experiencing the simulations aimed at these skills and attitudes. Experimental group subjects took a test-wiseness pretest and a test- wiseness posttest while control group subjects took the test-wiseness test at the same time as the experimental group took the posttest. Internal consistency of these results was low for the pretest and the control group test (stratified alpha's .1541 and .2007, respectively) but moderate (.3966) for the posttest. A one-way analysis of variance on classroom means yielded significantly larger means for the posttest than for the control group test. A one-way repeated measures analysis on classroom means yielded a significantly greater posttest than pretest mean. Two-sample homogeneity of variance tests and Levene's tests yielded significantly greater variances on the posttest results than either the pretest or the control group results. All children took the CTBS at the end of the year. There was no significant difference in mean classroom score between experimental and control group. Achievement test scores were correlated with teacher report card marks in reading. Fisher's Z was used to test for significant difference in validity coefficients at the .05 level. The difference approached significance by achieving a .07 level. Suggestion was made that the study be replicated in order to control for variables which might have contributed to or caused the resultant lack of significant difference in validity in this study. Larger experimental groups (to control for mortality) might be used. A more reliable (or more valid) criterion of achievement than teachers' grades might be employed. A different research design might allow for study of individual rather than group differences.
Individual Differences in Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotion
(1980) Jones, Margaret Sterner; Huebner, Robert W.; Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
Accurate communication of emotional meaning through facial expressions is one of many communication systems which aid in building positive social interactions and human relationships. Numerous studies have confirmed that the face is an important vehicle for communication of emotional messages and that facial expressions of at least nine fundamental emotions appear to be recognizable across cultures. It has been supposed that one's level of accuracy in recognition of facial expressions of emotion is related to effective emotion communication, the development of empathy, and effective interpersonal relationships. However, there has to date been little research which has investigated individual differences in emotional sensitivity as expressed through accurate recognition of facial expressions of emotion. The questions in this study asked whether differences in age, sex, education and occupation, intelligence, psychological differentiation, empathy, extraversion, or neuroticism affect the ability to accurately recognize the facial expressions of interest, joy, surprise, distress, disgust, anger, shame, fear, and contempt. Thirty-six women and nineteen men, ranging in age from 18 to 72 and representing five education levels and seven occupational categories participated in the study. They were asked to place each of 36 photographs of facial expressions (taken from Izard, 1971) into one of nine emotion categories. In addition, the subjects filled out a demographic sheet indicating age, sex, education level, major area of study and present occupation. Levels of intelligence, psychological differentiation, empathy, extraversion, and neuroticism were measured by the Western Personnel Test, the Group Embedded Figures Test, the Mehrabian-Epstein Empathy Questionnaire, and the Eysenck Personality Inventory respectively. Nine emotion accuracy scores and a total emotion response score were generated and subjected to statistical analysis using the remaining scores as independent variables. Analyses included correlation, analysis of variance and multiple regression analysis as appropriate in order to answer the nine research questions. Results showed significant relationships between total accuracy scores and age (r = -.51), empathy (r = .32) and a measure of "faking good'' from the EPI (r = -.23). Women were significantly better than men in identifying Shame. Persons with a Fine Arts background were better than other groups in identifying Disgust and Shame. Intelligence, extraversion, neuroticism, and psychological differentiation were not significantly related to emotion recognition scores. It was concluded that emotional sensitivity declined with age and with level of empathy. Emotional sensitivity also declined as one's need to "fake good'' increased. It was suggested that there exists an emotion awareness or emotion sensitivity factor which is independent of, but may interact with, cognitive, perceptual, and other personality variables. Results of the present study appear to provide support for Izard's theory of emotion. Several suggestions for future research to clarify the findings were made.
Effects of Team-Assisted Individualization on the Attitudes and Achievement of Third, Fourth and Fifth Grade Students of Mathematics
(1981) Bryant, Reva R.; Johnson, Martin L.; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The philosophy of individualized instruction has been embraced by many school systems in the United States. However, research has not consistently supported claims that this approach will increase academic achievement. Teachers have lodged multiple complaints related to demands and problems imposed upon them and their students as a result of implementing individualized programs. An attempt to alleviate the problems inherent in existing individualized programs has resulted in The Johns Hopkins University staff's development of Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)--an approach based on the modification of a researched and widely used group-paced model of instruction with cooperative learning teams as one component. This eight-week study evaluated the effects of three treatments on the achievement and attitudes toward mathematics class of 504- students in grades three, four and five. TAI combined student team learning and individualized instruction. Rapid Progress Mathematics (RPM) students used the exact materials as TAI students, but omitted the team component. This treatment was included to determine whether any effects of the program were due to the combination of teams and individualized instruction or only to the materials and procedures. Control students were instructed with traditional materials and procedures. Results of the standardized mathematics test showed significant effects for treatment and grade. After adjustment for pretests, the treatment effects were in the order TAI > RPM > Control. Effects approaching significance were also found on the diagnostic test, but on this test the order of the treatments was TAI> Control > RPM. Results of the attitude scale clearly showed that TAI and RPM conditions created more positive attitudes than did the control classes, but there were no differences between TAI and RPM. Further research will be needed to assess and to adapt these methods for use over a longer time period and to clarify the relative contributions of the team component and the individualized instruction component of the TAI program. However, this study documents the effectiveness and practicality of combining team learning and individualized instruction.
The Effect of Amniocentesis on Parental Anxiety and Self Concept
(1981) Thomas, Maureen Mulroy; Dittmann, Laura L.; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The purpose of this study was to provide prospective information about the psychological consequences of amniocentesis for both the husband and wife. Amniocentesis is a procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the amniotic sac surrounding the fetus during the second trimester of pregnancy and which is then cultured and tested for the presence of biochemical and chromosomal defects in the fetus. By gathering anxiety and self concept data before and after the results of the amniocentesis were known and then comparing it to similar data collected from pregnant couples who did not opt for the amniocentesis procedure, it was hoped that the following research questions would be answered. 1. Do individuals' levels of anxiety and self concept change after receiving the results of the amniocenteses? 2. Are there differences in women's and men's levels of anxiety and self concept before or after receiving the results of the amniocenteses? 3. Are the levels of anxiety and self concept of couples who have amniocenteses different from the levels of anxiety and self concept of couples who are pregnant but who do not have amniocenteses? There were two sources of data for this study. The first source was the treatment group which was composed of 25 women and their spouses who had an amniocentesis performed during the fifth month of pregnancy. The second source of data was the comparison group which was composed of 25 women and their spouses who were pregnant but who did not have an amniocentesis performed. These two groups were comparable in terms of socioeconomic status, educational achievement, racial composition, and religious affiliation. Both groups were interviewed at home on two occasions and during these times they were asked to describe their pregnancy experiences and to respond to the Institute of Personality and Ability Testing Anxiety Scale Questionnaire and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. To determine if changes occur in the treatment group's anxiety and self concept scores after receiving the test results, correlated t-Tests were performed. It was found that there were no statistically significant changes in either the women's or men's level of anxiety and self concept after receiving negative amniocentesis results. Negative amniocentesis results mean that the fetus has been found to be free of certain genetic defects. To answer the second research question concerning differences in anxiety and self concept scores for the treatment women and men, a series of oneway analyses of variance were performed on the data. It was found that the treatment group women had statistically higher levels of anxiety then their spouses both before and after the results of the amniocentesis were known. In terms of the self concept, the analyses revealed no evidence of statistical differences between the amniocenteis women and men. To determine if there were differences in levels of anxiety and self concept for treatment and comparison group couples, another series of oneway analyses of variance were performed. It was found that there were no statistically significant differences between the treatment and comparison group women in terms of anxiety or self concept but there were statistically significant differences between the men. The treatment group men were found to be significantly less anxious than the comparison group men both before and after receiving the negative amniocentesis results. In terms of self concept, the treatment group men were found to feel significantly more positive about themselves before the results of the amniocentesis were known but not after. Based on this study's findings, it would seem that the degree of anxiety experienced by the amniocentesis couple during the waiting period is relative to the sex of the individual and is, at worst, no greater than that associated with being pregnant. It would also seem that in the early weeks after the diagnosis is known, negative amniocentesis results do little to reduce a couple's feelings of anxiety. Finally, it would seem that there is no decrease in a couple's self concept as a results of having an amniocentesis performed. Explanations for the discrepancies between this study's findings and the amniocentesis literature were given. They were grouped into one of three categories-- psychological orientation of the couples, demographic variables, and study design differences. Suggestions were also given for improving the genetic counseling amniocentesis couples receive as a result of this study's findings and areas for further investigation were discussed.
An Analysis of Selected Topics in Christian Sex Education Curricula
(1982) Dahlin, Marjorie B.; Gardner, Albert H.; Human Development Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
PROBLEM. This research identified content and methods used in 37 current Christian sex education resources to teach the topics of masturbation, contraception, homosexuality, abortion, and pre-marital sex. The analysis sought to ascertain the extent to which these topics were covered in the resources, if at all; the direction of stance taken by each resource toward each topic; the type(s) of authority cited in support of stance; the scriptural passages quoted in support of stance; the type of values education approach used, and characteristic themes comprising basic content in each of the five topics. PROCEDURE. Titles for the analysis were identified based on bibliographies by SIECUS and the National Council of Churches' Commission on Family Ministries and Human Sexuality, with a follow-up survey to check for possible omissions. The final sample consisted of materials produced by or for 1) the Commission's member groups and 2 ) the Roman Catholic Church. The investigator's judgments were subjected to tests of inter-judge reliability, resulting in overall levels of agreement of 76.0% to 94.1%. RESULTS. At least 4 of the 5 topics were covered in most (70.3%) of the resources. All of the materials discussed pre-marital sex; this topic exceeded the others in number of sentences of coverage by more than 4 times. The resources tended to be accepting of contraception by married couples (except for the Roman Catholic materials); divided on their stances toward masturbation; disapproving of premarital sex and homosexuality, and ambiguous toward abortion (again, except for the Roman Catholic materials). Scriptural references cited in support of stances derived primarily from the Old Testament and the writings of St. Paul. The type of values education approach used most frequently was "Inculcation." Almost half the resources contained information on contraceptives. CONCLUSIONS. Most of the resources contained discussion of most of the topics. Further research might explore the thoroughness and accuracy of this coverage. Recommendations are made for revision of the materials.
Perceived Organizational and Personal Factors Related to Job Satisfaction in Public School Teachers
(1982) Dodge, Joan Moir; Milhollan, Frank; Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
Teaching has always been a demanding occupation; and yet, in the last few years, there has been increasing evidence that teachers are expressing greater feelings of anxiety, frustration and dissatisfaction with their jobs. While there appears much popular interest in the area of teacher stress and job dissatisfaction, generally there has been little research attention. More specifically, there has been little empirical assessment using a multivariate model which examines the interaction of organizational and personal variables related to job satisfaction in a teacher population. It is the purpose of this study to examine both perceived organizational factors and personal factors and to determine how variation in these factors leads to variation in job satisfaction in teachers. Based on a multivariate model, the following two questions were addressed: 1. Does participation in decision-making, teaching anxiety, social support in schools {perceived organizational factors) as well as job involvement, years of teaching experience, age and sex (personal factors) affect job satisfaction in public school teachers? 2. Are perceived organizational or personal factors more influential in affecting job satisfaction in teachers? The study sample consisted of two hundred public school teachers with 69% of them being classroom teachers who responded to a questionnaire. Results were analyzed using simultaneous multiple regression for question one and a hierarchical multiple regression analysis for question two. Findings showed that 35% of the variance of job satisfaction could be explained by these seven variables. The four variables of emotional support, participation in decision-making, teaching anxiety, and age, yielded significant contributions to job satisfaction. Using a hierarchical method to determine the unique contribution of organization versus personal factors to job satisfaction, results indicated that organizational factors account for 33% of the variance in job satisfaction while personal variables accounted for 2% of the variation. In general, these findings suggested that perceived organizational factors were much more important to the public school teachers' feelings of satisfaction with their jobs than personal factors were. These findings were discussed in terms of implications related to helping school administrators focus on mental health issues of teachers as well as the importance of organizational environment to job satisfaction.
Oral Communication Apprehension and Its Relationship to Language Achievement and Attitudes Toward the Language Arts
(1982) Thom, Ruth V.; Roderick, Jessie; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
This study examined the occurrence of oral communication apprehension (OCA) among 547 sixth grade students in two Maryland schools. The focus was on the relationship between OCA and language achievement, as well as attitudes towards the language arts including sex differences. The Personal Report of Communication Fear Scale (McCroskey, 1977) was administered to categorize the subjects into five OCA levels - Low, Moderately Low, Moderate, Moderately High, and High. The scores gained on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills - Language Subtest were used to assess students' levels of language achievement, and their attitudes toward the language arts were measured by their scores on the Attitudes Toward the Language Arts Scale (Arlin-Hills) Frequencies and percentages were computed for estimating differences in the occurrence of oral communication apprehension among the groups and sexes while Chi-square analysis was used for testing significance of sex differences. Two-way ANOVA and Scheffe test for testing significance of sex differences in language achievement and attitudes to the language arts, as well as one-way ANOVA and intercorrelations of the scores of the PRCF and the two other measures were done to assess relationships between these variables. The following were the findings: 1. The High OCA group consisted of 15 percent of the sample, the Low 16 percent and the three combined Moderate OCA groups 69 percent. 2. Sex differences in the occurrence of OCA at each level were of no statistical significance, but slightly more girls than boys were highly apprehensive about oral communication. 3. The Low and Moderate OCA girls' groups scored significantly higher in language achievement than boys in these groups. 4. Sex differences in attitudes toward the language arts were not significant. 5. There was a relationship between OCA and language achievement indicated by a statistically significant difference among the five group means and the high apprehensives scored below the sample mean, while the low apprehensives scored above. 6. There was no relationship between OCA and attitudes towards the language arts as there was no statistically significant difference among the five OCA group means for the attitude scale.
An Application of Concepts from the Cobb Model to Female Coping with Mid-Life Events
(1983) Lake, Geraldine Stirling; Hardy, Robert; Institute for Child Study/ Department of Human Development; University of Maryland (College Park, Md); Digital Repository at the University of Maryland
This study examined the relationship among social situation variables, selected personality variables, and how a woman in mid-life copes with a major life event. Specifically, this study considered relationships among Myers-Briggs Type Indicator continua, social support, choices and assessments a woman makes in coping with a life event. The subjects were 102 women, aged thirty-five to fifty-five, who had experienced a life event (e.g:, divorce, health problems, job loss, etc.) in the past three years. Subjects completed instruments on their background; personality (MBTI); type of events involved; responses to these events; quantity, quality, and types of social support used; and current life situation assessment. T Tests were computed using the Extraversion/Introversion MBTI continuum with quantity and quality of resources used. T Tests were also computed using subjects' scores on quality of resources with life assessment variables. Multiple Analysis of Variance was used to test new constructs developed from the Critical Response List with the MBTI Scales. Two specific hypotheses and three questions were studied. Hypothesis 1 stated that extraverts would report being helped by more people and helped more by people when compared to introverts. Differences between the two groups were not significant. The t Test on extraversion and quantity of help approached significance; the part of the hypothesis testing extraversion and quality of help was rejected. Hypothesis 2 stated that subjects having better quality of support would report better life situations than would subjects with poorer quality of support. While the difference between the two groups was not significant, the t Tests did approach significance. Other questions which tested for coping response differences between groups on the other three scales of the MBTI found no significant differences, indicating that the MBTI scales did not discriminate among the coping responses of the subjects. One sub-group, judging, rated their quality of emotional support received as much higher (.0046) than did perceivers. These results lend little support to the idea that there are significant relationships among MBTI continua, social support, and how a woman copes with a life event. The study did find that subjects mainly used family and friends for support while working though a life event and that over 90% of the women reported that emotional support was the most important kind of support.
The Independent Learning Behaviors of Preadolescent Students Using the Problem Approach
(1984) Pilato, Virginia H.; Brigham, Bruce W.; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)
The purpose of this research was to observe the independent learning behaviors of preadolescent students who experienced the Problem Approach, an instructional approach intended to help students develop independent learning behaviors and improved thinking skills. A behavior observation checklist, divided into the categories of Questioning, Managing, Planning, and Evaluating, was used to record the frequency, the directionality (initiates versus responds), and the social contexts of independent learning behaviors. A single case experimental design with four parallel applications was used. The subjects were four sixth grade students (boy and girl middle achievement level; boy and girl low achievement level). The research was conducted in the students' reading class where the subjects, along with all the other members of the class, participated in the Problem Approach. A team of trained observers collected focused observation data for ten weeks, which included pre-treatment, treatment, and post-treatment. Upon completion of the observations, the data were analyzed. Visual inspection of graphed data, as well as the sign test and the binomial test, clearly revealed large increases of independent learning behavior during treatment compared to pre-treatment and post -treatment. The high level s of independent learning behaviors during treatment, however , were not maintained during post-treatment. In Questioning, Managing , and Evaluating categories, most post-treatment frequencies were somewhat higher than they were during pre-treatment. Only the Planning category failed to achieve a post-treatment level higher than the pre-treatment level. All four subjects increased their proportion of initiating behaviors to responding behaviors during and after treatment compared to before treatment. The vast number of behaviors occurred when students spoke to one another, not to the teacher. Moreover, the highest frequency of independent learning behaviors occurred when students worked with one another in cooperative small groups. This research has numerous implications. An implication for theory is that the psychological conditions of a setting may influence human change as much as direct instruction. Implications for research indicate the need for replication. Implications for practice indicate the need for using the Problem Approach in classrooms and in teacher education to assist students in becoming independent.

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