Psychology
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Item Modelling of Heuristic Evaluation Strategies in Game Playing: Linear and Configural Effects in Othello(1981) Phillips, Robert Vernon III; Norman, Kent L.; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)Psychological research on problem solving began with Thorndike's work on trial and error learning with cats, dogs, and monkeys. Kohler later initiated research with apes which convinced him that problems could be solved with insight. Through the 1940's, the study of human problem solving focused on general principles (following the Gestalt tradition) and S-R mechanisms to explain how people solve problems. The advent of computer technology in the 1950's spurred research in artificial intelligence, game playing, and problem solving. Formal definitions of problems outlined the components of a constituting the problem representation. This provided a framework for computer scientists to mechanize problem Solving with algorithms of search. Computer scientists met with success in developing programs to work on well-defined problems, such as games and puzzles, where the components of the problem representation are easily stated. Once the representation is adopted, solution is a matter of search. It has been shown that the efficiency of mechanized search is aided by the use of a ''heuristic evaluation function" (Nilsson, 1971), which has a form similar to psychological models applied in research on human decision making and judgment (Slovic and Lichtenstein, 1972). Samuel (1959), used a regression model of human judgment based on the knowledge of skilled checkers players in order to produce a heuristic evaluation function for a checkers playing program. Another model which can also be used to provide a heuristic evaluation function is based on Anderson's (1962) technique of functional measurement. This approach allows estimation of subjective scale values for the levels of information components relevant to playing a game. In contrast to these linear models, Edgell (1978) has argued that people can utilize configural information when making judgments, an issue which has been avoided by most decision modelling research. Samuel (1967) showed that use of configural infermation by a heuristic evaluation function can augment the skill of a checkers playing program, but the question of whether human players use such information was not researched. This paper reports one pilot experiment and two other experiments which were conducted to investigate whether people do use configural information when evaluating alternative moves in a game situation. The effects of game experience, learning, and training on use of configural information were examined. In addition, the research was conducted in a game playing situation in order to address the issue of ecological validity (Neisser, 1976) in psychological research. As Newell and Simon (1972) have argued, a good psychological theory of how a good chess player plays chess should play good chess.Item Cuban Latin Americans: Psychosocial Correlates of Cultural Adjustment(1988) Sinclair, Elsa A. Rivera; Magoon, Thomas M.; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)The process of adjustment to a new culture-acculturation-- is considered a crucial factor contributing to variations of psychological distress and anxiety among immigrant groups. It is believed that a person's level of distress during the cultural adaptation process is a reflection of the interconnection of the psychological and sociocultural processes of personality functioning. Behavioral scientists' accounts of the psychological effects experienced by Latin Americans during the cultural adjustment process point to maladjustment rather than to the positive aspects of this cultural phenomenon. To a lesser degree the literature reveals that acculturation may have a wholesome effect for some individuals in the long run. Some evidence, however, suggests that biculturalism may be a healthy approach to cultural adjustment. The present study investigated the psychosocial correlates of biculturalism. Two-hundred and fifty four male and female Cuban participants ranging from 18-90 years of age, living in metropolitan Washington, o.c., were administered self-report questionnaires. This field study examined the role played in biculturalism (Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire, BIQ) by age, length of time in the United States, and gender of the participants. The role played by presence of a support group, educational level, income level, ethnic identification, and use of mental health facilities was also explored. The criterion for level of adjustment was the participants' anxiety scores (State Anxiety Scale, SAS). The investigation's assumption is that biculturalism is related to relatively low anxiety levels. A hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis revealed that (a) biculturalism and anxiety are related to the length of time the Cuban participant has been in the United States, (b) biculturalism is associated with the person's age, (c) there is a significant and positive linear relationship between BIQ scores and SAS scores. This means that if a person continues to remain monoculturally Cuban while living in a bicultural community, his/her levels of anxiety will be high. This tested the psychosocial model of adjustment. However, the test for the curvilinear relationship was not significant, and (d) the presence of support group networks, educational level, family income and ethnic identification are significantly associated with the process of biculturalism.Item PREDISPOSING FACTORS IN PEDOPHILIA(1989) Gordon, Susan; Spokane, Arnold; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)This was an exploratory study about the etiology of pedophilia which examined the biological, psychological, and social background variables that may predispose men to a paraphilic sexual orientation. The biological variables included were chromosomal and hormonal irregularities. The psychological variables were introversion, depression, moralistic attitudes, and aggression (MMPI scales). The social background variables were childhood losses, relationship with parents, childhood sexual victimization, familial pedophilia, incest, and violence. Data on these variables were collected from a retrospective chart review of former male patients at Johns Hopkins sexual Disorders Clinic. The patients represented six different paraphilic (sexually deviant) diagnostic categories: (a) Homosexual pedophiles (b) Heterosexual pedophiles (c) Bisexual pedophiles (d) Exhibitionists (e) sexual sadists (f) Atypical paraphiliacs. Results of a stepwise discriminant analysis indicated that there were significant demographic, biological, and social differences among these six paraphilic groups. There were also significant differences between the major groupings of pedophiles (homosexual, heterosexual and bisexual pedophiles) and non-pedophiles (exhibitionists, sadists and the atypical group). Demographically, the diagnostic groups differed with respect to age, birth order, marital status, number of children, occupation and education. Biologically, the paraphilic groups had different testosterone levels. Psychologically, the paraphilic groups did not differ. Because only 14 of the 211 subjects had been given the MMPI, however, results of the analysis of psychological variables must be interpreted cautiously. Socially, the paraphilic groups' differences included experience of childhood loss, age of first sexual involvement, use of violence, and incestuous involvement. Two path analyses were conducted to test models of correlational relationships among the variables. The path analyses were conducted first with, and second without, the HMPI scores. Results indicated that two path coefficients were significant: (a) social circumstances, and particularly having a pedophile relative, was related to childhood sexual involvement with an adult, F(4,118)=6.54, p<.001; (b) incestuous involvement with a child was related to sexual orientation, F(1,203) = 11.19, p<.001. It is concluded that although generalizations about pedophiles as a single group cannot be made, a biological predisposition (hormonal irregularities) may interact with childhood familial relationships (father-son) in the development of paraphilias. This study's limitations, suggestions for future research, theoretical and practical implications are presented.Item Expectations for Organizational Combinations(1985) Rentsch, Joan; Schneider, Benjamin; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)This study is an attempt to learn more about the expectations that people hold for organizational combinations (mergers and acquisitions). A measure of organizational combination expectations was developed to test hypotheses regarding the power, autonomy, identity, job security, and morale expectations that people hold for combinations. It was hypothesized that one's expectations would depend on the individual's perspective in the combination, that is, whether one is in an acquired, merged, or acquiring organization. Expectations were also hypothesized to differ depending on the motive for the combination (e.g. organizational survival or organizational growth). It was expected that perspective would also influence perceived uncertainty. The relationship between perceived uncertainty and motive, and the influence of perspective, and motive on expected satisfaction were also explored. 252 MRA students were presented with scenarios of combinations in which perspective and motive were manipulated. They then responded to the survey of combination expectations, a measure of perceived uncertainty and a satisfaction scale. Results indicated that motive and perspective did have significant effects on expectations, but they did not influence expected satisfaction. The influence of perspective on uncertainty was not significant. Uncertainty was influenced by motive, such that there was less uncertainty when growth was the motive than when survival was the motive. Exploratory analysis indicated that expectations are better predictors of expected satisfaction than is uncertainty, Implications of the results and the limitations of the study are discussed.Item Effects of a Workshop Designed to Promote Effective Coping with Sexual Harassment and Its Associated Effects: A Single-Case Design(1985) Goldfarb, Rosalind Gore; Spokane, Arnold; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)The effects of training victims of sexual harassment in coping techniques to deal with harassment was studied in a single-case study using six subjects who had experienced sexual harassment. Subjects were six women in their 20s and 30s who were employed in local and government business and industry. All were volunteers who either responded to advertisements in local newspapers or were referred by counselors. Subjects responded to a series of questionnaires about their experiences with sexual harassment prior to and four times following a training workshop in coping techniques. The subjects also completed the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale prior to and one month following training. Each subject was interviewed before the training workshop. The information from the questionnaires, the interviews, and the Internal-External Scales were evaluated to determine whether Locus of Control was a contributing factor in the subjects' experiences with sexual harassment. Internals appeared more likely to report harassment than were externals and appeared to make more attempts to deal with the harassment than did externals. They were more prone to use avoidance than were externals, who were more prone to use denial to deal with harassment. Prior to training, neither group anticipated being ab le to stop the harassment. Neither behaviors of primary control (assertive) nor behaviors of secondary control (passive) were perceived as having been effective in the past. After training, anticipation of success increased. Behaviors of primary control were anticipated to be effective, but were perceived to be even more successful. Behaviors of secondary control were anticipated to be ineffective (Pre- and Post-test + (5) = 3.85, p <.05), but were perceived to be possibly effective (+ (5) = 7.75, p <.01). Physical symptoms declined following training (+ (5) = 3. 78, p <.05), while emotional symptoms remained unchanged for the group. Generalizations from these data are severely constrained by the ex post facto single-case design which was imposed after extensive attempts to recruit subjects failed. The evidence tends to indicate that training victims in techniques to cope with sexual harassment alters their anticipation of success and thereby encourages them to attempt new behaviors. It was also observed that all subjects, regardless of locus of control, were lacking in confrontation skills, a factor which appeared to be related to their experiences of sexual harassment.Item The Relationship Between Women's Perceptions of the Campus Environment and Self-Esteem as Moderated by Women's Identity Attitudes(1986) Ossana, Shelly Lynne; Psychology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)An examination of the relationships among undergraduate women's self-esteem, perceptions of the campus environment, and women's identity attitudes (i.e., attitudes about, and identification with, women and the sociopolitical issues unique to women) was conducted. 649 female undergraduates, freshman through seniors, were surveyed in classes at the University of Maryland, College Park campus. Results indicated that Encounter (characterized by rejection of previously held stereotypical views about women and heightened awareness about the sociopolitical issues unique to women) and Immersion-Emersion (characterized by active rejection of male supremacist values and beliefs) attitudes were positively related to perceptions of gender bias in the campus environment and inversely related to self-esteem. Internalization (chararacterized by acceptance and pride in one's women's identity) attitudes were inversely related to perceptions of environmental gender bias and positively related to self-esteem. Perceptions of gender bias were inversely related to self-esteem, indicating that the more negatively one viewed oneself the more likely one was to perceive the campus environment as biased, or conversely that the more positively one viewed oneself the less likely one was to perceive inequities reflecting gender bias in the campus environment. Implications for counseling and future research are discussed.