Teaching, Learning, Policy & Leadership Theses and Dissertations
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Item UNCOVERING THE SILENCES: GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AT A LARGE PUBLIC UNIVERSITY IN INDIA(2024) Saini, Ruchi; Klees, Steven Professor; Zaharia, Zeena Associate Professor; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)Gender-based violence in universities is a complex and persistent problem that is under-reported and under-researched across the globe. Despite scholarly, advocacy-based, and policy consensus around the need to provide safe learning environments to college students, in-depth qualitative evidence about GBV in universities exists in an amorphous form, particularly when it comes to India. My dissertation is a narrative inquiry that employs an intersectional feminist framework to address this research gap. It draws on two years of field study involving focus group discussions with women bystanders (n=50), and art-based narrative interviews with self-identified victim-survivors (n=10) of GBV at a large public university in India, henceforth called the Indian University. Study I, “What do we know about gender-based violence in formal education institutions in India? A scoping study” is a scoping review that maps the key themes and synthesizes the policy/prevention recommendation within existing empirical qualitative literature on GBV in formal educational institutions in India. Findings show the critical role played by intergenerational hierarchies, gendered sociocultural norms linked to masculinity and femininity, conservatism within families, and intersections of caste and class with gender in shaping both the actions of perpetrators and the experiences of victim-survivors. The findings demonstrate the need for scholars and policymakers to go beyond theoretical conceptualizations of GBV that exclusively focus on interpersonal manifestations of abuse to also include within it structural and cultural manifestations of violence. Study II, “Manifestations of Gender-Based Violence at a Large Public University in India: Voices of Women Students from India” investigates the diverse manifestations of GBV at the Indian University. In the study, I employ the frameworks of the continuum of violence (Kelly, 1988) and structural/cultural violence (Galtung, 1986) to show how students experience a range of abusive behaviors within interpersonal relationships, public spaces, and inside classrooms. Based on the findings, I assert the need for scholars and policymakers to adopt a model of “continuum thinking” that acknowledges and address the “grey areas” of student’s experiences with GBV. I also theorize how specific institutional characteristics, such as the omission of mental health services for queer students, encompass a form of structural violence because it exacerbates the harm suffered by those already marginalized, thereby translating into unequal life opportunities for them. Study III, “How Universities Shape Students’ Experiences with Gender-Based Violence in India: An Intersectional Decolonial Narrative Inquiry” adds to the growing conversation about how universities’ structural and cultural characteristics shape students’ experiences with GBV. In the study, I employ the theoretical framework of “institutional betrayal” (Smith & Freyd, 2014), and foreground the perspectives of bystanders and victim-survivors of GBV at the Indian University. Findings reveal that cultural aspects linked to high-power distance (Hofstede, 1985), the influence of Hindutva politics on the campus, and the prevalence of a chalta hai (literal translation: “anything goes”) attitude sustained GBV on the campus. At the structural level, the findings illuminate that the hiring practices linked to the employment of ad-hoc professors, along with the lack of formal guidelines around the establishment of student-led societies and the tokenistic nature of GBV prevention and redressal services sustained GBV. Study IV, “A Creative and Art-Based Approach to Narrative Inquiry: Decolonizing Gender-Based Violence” explicates how I employed creative and art-based methods in tandem with narrative inquiry in my research to foster a decolonial ethics of care geared towards minimizing participant harm, fostering participant agency, and facilitating co-construction of knowledge. In the study, I make use of participant testimonies and my own observations to demonstrate how the use of vignettes in the FGDs, and art-based research in narrative interviews helped prevent re-traumatization of my participants, facilitated a deeper exploration of the hidden power structures, and supported creative avenues for the dissemination of findings. I end the dissertation by highlighting six key lessons derived from these studies. These lessons focus on the need to 1) identify and name those unspoken and unheard-of forms of GBV that are often shrouded in secrecy, 2) recognize and address the stunning adaptability of GBV 3) prioritize primary prevention strategies, 4) diversify and strengthen secondary and tertiary interventions, 5) disrupt generational and workplace hierarchies, and 6) hold institutions accountable without ignoring individual complicity.Item CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR EPISTEMIC AGENCY IN THE LEARNING OF SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES(2024) Hirst Bernhardt, Christine; Elby, Andrew; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)This dissertation consists of three studies exploring factors affecting whether, when and how students engage in sensemaking in science disciplines, and the epistemological components of instruction that impact their engagement. Each study is grounded in science education reform efforts, including the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which call upon educators to engage students in science practices to learn science through sensemaking and necessitate a reorientation to position learners to “shape the knowledge building work in their classroom community (Miller et al., 2018, p. 1058; NRC, 2012). In other words, students must now act with epistemic agency to figure out more than they learn about (Krist et al., 2019). Study 1 addresses a gap in astronomy education research literature. Astronomy education is largely centered on undergraduates and is minimally researched in pre-college settings. I conducted a qualitative study with thematic analysis of surveys (N = 68) and 10 interviews with select participants to discover methods of teaching and learning astronomy internationally, as a follow on to the quantitative curricular study by Salimpour et al. (2021). I was looking for examples of astronomy as a gateway for further STEM learning in classrooms and community, and as a bridge to equity, as well as examples and takeaways. While the interview participants provided notable examples of programs which disrupt representation gaps in astronomy fields and promote STEM connections amongst historically underserved populations, I did not find easily replicable examples for US teachers to use astronomy as a “gateway” science; I found other nations wrestling with similar issues of deprioritized science instruction, lack of resources and poor access to teacher professional learning opportunities. Therefore, I turned to a deeper understanding of epistemologies of teaching and learning in studies 2 and 3. Papers 2 and 3 investigate the role of epistemological framing, or how people make sense of a particular situation, through speech and behaviors, from past experience (Elby & Hammer, 2010; Goffman, 1974; Hammer et al., 2004). Students may frame learning science as doing school for completion of worksheets and production of “correct” answers for a grade, or they may frame learning science as doing science when they consider “correct” as considering available evidence and weighing it against predicted outcomes to make sense of phenomena or developing disciplinary knowledge through the process of sensemaking (Hutchinson & Hammer, 2010; Miller et al., 2018). In papers 2 and 3, I explored how teachers used framing moves or bids through explicit or implicit signals such as means of instruction, tone, or body language to sustain, shift or redirect students’ approaches to learning activities (Berland & Hammer, 2012). In paper 2, I investigated the impact of two teachers varied framing moves while using similar curricular materials through secondary video analysis. I used codes for cognitive authority and epistemological stance to segment each teacher's dialogue while introducing the activities, or their” public talk,” which established and sustained classroom norms for participation and engagement. I also analyzed dialogue between each teacher and small student groups, as seen from a teacher-worn GoPro camera. I found that one teacher mostly framed the lesson as students doing science and established a culture of collaboration. I found that the other teacher mostly framed the lesson as doing school and established a culture of compliance. However, these findings were nuanced and context dependent. In paper 3, I investigated, through a single case study, how a veteran teacher acknowledged, addressed and adapted her work within the same curriculum from paper 2 to address a mismatch between the epistemic agency afforded by the materials and students’ “typical” epistemic agency enacted in that classroom. I engaged in a collaborative planning interview and observation cycle with the teacher, Amy, over five observations and eight interviews. While I intended to better understand and characterize Amy’s framing moves and how those moves positioned students to act with epistemic agency, I determined that, what I thought were purely her framing moves were also reinforcing embedded commitments (for relationships and community). These commitments were baked into all of her framing moves for sensemaking. I also saw over multiple days that students did not take up her framing bids; after revisiting the data, including a lesson not using the curricular materials, I saw students in her class and school, by structural design, always had some form of epistemic agency, and that the curricular materials suppressed some of the form of epistemic agency to which they were accustomed. By contrast, when Amy modified the lesson to grant students their “typical” epistemic agency, the lesson went well, with students engaging excitedly in scientific argumentation. Therefore, this study demonstrated that the construct of epistemic agency is not monolithic, that the form of epistemic agency matters. Students recognize when there is a mismatch between the epistemic agency invited by curriculum and that which they are accustomed to, which influences their engagement and participation. Amy demonstrated the pedagogical moves and strategies to realign this mismatch.These studies are significant in that many teachers use highly structured materials to assist with NGSS implementation, yet the manner in which teachers approach these materials determine the objectives they establish, and the framing moves they enact, which are likely taken up by students (EdReports, 2022). Paper 3 specifically demonstrates the ability of expert, veteran teachers to understand and act upon knowledge of their students. This knowledge should be leveraged and supported through professional development and curriculum. Paper 1 is also significant because the NGSS embeds and interconnects Earth and Space Science into every grade band in every content area, thus elevating a previously ignored subject matter. Many teachers globally, as Paper 1 demonstrated, are unprepared to integrate this content with efficacy and authenticity. Therefore, we must consider, honor and respect the insight, experience and professionalism of teachers, and work holistically in that space to better understand what they already do well, instead of trying to consistently reshape or re-direct. Perhaps instead of teaching about practices and disciplinary engagement from a deficit stance, professional development should center teachers as professionals to improvise, to experience and to adapt materials as only professionals can. Each of the studies presented in this dissertation describes teachers (or teacher educators in Paper 1) with expert knowledge of their classroom or disciplinary cultures as they relate to engagement, and suggest that we must trust teachers, as professionals, to do just that.Item Problems and Possibilities: The identities and challenges of early career science teachers(2024) Mesiner, Jennifer Elizabeth; Levin, Daniel M; Elby, Andrew; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)Learning to teach is multifaceted and dynamic resulting in a turbulent, fast-changing era of professional life for early career science teachers (ECSTs). Teaching practice is uncertain and tensions are endemic to the profession (Ball, 1993). This dissertation connects to and extends current research of the challenges ECSTs face and how those challenges affect ECSTs’ work, identity, and experience. In the first chapter, I introduce my research focus and offer a personal narrative to provide context of my positionality and experiences between myself and my research. In Chapter 2, I offer a systematic review of the literature to provide a contemporary update to Davis and colleagues’ (2006) review Challenges New Science Teachers Face to answer the question: What challenges do ECSTs face while navigating their first years of teaching? Chapter 3 describes the research design, data sources, and general analysis for the longitudinal case study of an ECST, Alexa. The remaining body chapters build upon Chapter 2 and each other in answer to my remaining research questions: What challenges does Alexa face as an ECST? How does Alexa’s teacher role identity develop over time? In what ways do challenges shape Alexa’s teacher role identity? Chapter 4 builds upon the themes drawn from Chapter 2’s systematic review to explore the challenges Alexa experiences. Chapter 5 describes how Alexa’s identity develops across her early years as an ECST using a Dynamic Systems of Role Identity framework (Kaplan & Garner, 2018). Chapter 6 explores how those challenges impacted Alexa’s science teacher identity using a productive friction framework (Hagel & Brown, 2005a). In Chapter 7, I close by summarizing the research, describing its implications, and offering future directions for research and practice.Item SUPPORTING EQUITABLE CLIMATE CHANGE DECISIONS IN A RURAL COMMUNITY THROUGH EXPANDED NOTIONS OF CLIMATE DATA: USING CRITICAL DATA PERSPECTIVES AND PRACTICES TO SUPPORT CLIMATE LEARNING WHILE CO-DESIGNING AN ONLINE, MAP-BASED, EDUCATIONAL RESOURCE(2024) Killen, Heather Ann; Clegg, Tamara; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)Climate change threats are ever increasing, forcing communities to ask: what do they value and how are they going to protect it? Community-based climate education should play a central role in supporting equitable local decisions regarding local responses to climate challenges. However, there is little research about how to best support communities, especially rural communities that may be skeptical of climate change, to see how climate change is affecting their landscapes. In my dissertation I explore a community-based effort to build a map representing a valued local landscape feature and how this effort can act to convene knowledge about local landscape and climate, ratify that knowledge through inclusion onto a map, and ultimately inform community decision making. Guided by the perspectives and practices of critical data science and storylistening I frame my research around data and story. Prior work has considered the role of climate data within environmental education and story within community scholarship, but there is still a need to explore expanded notions of data within community learning and the role of community-held stories in local decision making. My dissertation focuses on how local, personally held landscape and climate data might complement and extend local, institutionally held data and how map building might support data-rich storytelling and listening. Working within a conservative-leaning, rural community and using the ArcGIS StoryMap web application, I engaged six community members over six design sessions to collaboratively design an online, public map of a creek and associated nature trail at the center of their town. I find that participants engaged in six key map-building design processes as they interacted with their local landscape in new ways. I also find that participants used the knowledge they brought into the design space to collaboratively expand, challenge, and occasionally transform their shared understanding. Together these processes allowed local, often generationally held, climate and landscape knowledge to become community-held understanding that could be included as data within the map. Using this analysis, I present my Evidentiary Landscape Learning (ELL) framework, placing my insights into a community-based learning context. The ELL framework demonstrates a pathway for engaging community members to understand how local and beyond-local socio-cultural values and systems are physically embodied in their local landscapes.Item Crossing the Cultural Bridge: Examining the Cross-Ethnic Interactions and Relationships Between Black Immigrant and Black American Students at a Predominantly White, Public, State Flagship Institution(2024) Ogwo, Ashley; Fries-Britt, Sharon L; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)The discourse surrounding Black immigrant and Black American student relationships in higher education has often centered tensions between the two groups related to their enrollment in private elite institutions (e.g., Bennett & Lutz, 2009; Charles et al., 2008; Massey et al., 2007). However, both inside and outside of the private elite context, there is little research that intentionally examines the cross-ethnic interactions and relationships between Black immigrant and Black American students (Awokoya, 2012; De Walt, 2011; George Mwangi et al., 2016; Jackson & Cothran, 2003). Existing literature’s primary focus on circumstances surrounding Black immigrant and Black American undergraduates that are out of their control, such as their respective over- and underrepresentation at elite colleges (Bennett & Lutz, 2009; Charles et al., 2008; Jaschik, 2017; Massey et al., 2007), has left a significant gap in the knowledge base regarding the actual communicative experiences of these student populations across ethnic lines. Few studies have ventured beyond the private elite institutional context to explore these relational dynamics, resulting in limited scholarly understanding of the benefits and challenges of Black immigrant and Black American interactions and relationship-building from the perspectives of students themselves. This study aims to address these knowledge gaps by examining the cross-ethnic relationship dynamics between Black immigrant and Black American undergraduates in the institutional context they more frequently attend: a predominantly white, moderately selective, public, state flagship institution (U.S. Department of Education National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, 2016, as cited in Espinosa et al., 2019).Utilizing communication theory of identity and case study methodology, this study empirically unpacks the cross-ethnic interactions and relationships between Black immigrant and Black American undergraduates at a predominantly white, public, state flagship institution in the Mid-Atlantic U.S. This study was guided by the following two research questions: 1) What do Black immigrant and Black American students at a predominantly white, public, state flagship institution perceive to be the role of their ethnic identities in their cross-ethnic interactions with one another? And 2) What do Black immigrant and Black American students at a predominantly white, public, state flagship institution perceive to be the benefits and challenges of Black cross-ethnic interactions and relationship-building? My study uncovered six themes that were prevalent across participants’ case narratives, including three challenges and three benefits to cross-ethnic interactions and relationship-building between Black immigrant and Black American students: 1) Challenge #1: “I Don’t Really Have Time”: How Students’ Schedules Limit Their Cross-Ethnic Engagement; 2) Benefit #1: “For the Sake of Community”: Developing Strong Cross-Ethnic Bonds to Support One Another at the PWI; 3) Challenge #2: “Instilled from Childhood”: The “Cycle” of Passing Down Cross-Ethnic Stereotypes and Preconceived Notions; 4) Benefit #2: “Breaking Generational Curses”: Combatting Instilled Interethnic Stereotypes through Cross-Ethnic Communication and Relationship-Building; 5) Challenge #3: “Trying to Reach and Understand the Other Side”: How Lack of Cultural Knowledge Limits Cross-Ethnic Interactions and Relationships; and 6) Benefit #3: “There’s So Much to Learn and Love”: Building Cross-Cultural Understanding through Cross-Ethnic Interactions and Relationships. The study’s findings provide critical insight into existing relational dynamics between Black immigrant and Black American undergraduates, detailing how these students perceive, describe, and make meaning of the relationship between their ethnic identities and their cross-cultural communication experiences with one another as well as the utility of their cross-ethnic interactions.Item EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF A COMPUTATIONAL THINKING MODULE FOR MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE METHODS COURSES(2024) Moon, Peter; Walkoe, Janet; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)Computational thinking (CT) has great potential for enhancing mathematics and science lessons in K-12 education. Numerous studies demonstrate that under the right circumstances, CT integration in math and science can improve student learning and promote deeper understanding. However, teacher education currently does not include preparation for using CT in the classroom on a widespread scale. Instead, most current CT courses or professional development (PD) opportunities for teachers are taught by a local CT researcher who can only reach a limited number of teachers. This qualitative three-article dissertation summarizes the development, implementation, and effects of a five-lesson module on CT designed to be integrated within a math & science methods course or a similar course for teachers. The goal of this module is to provide learning about CT within most teacher education programs without substantially affecting that program’s requirements for teachers (i.e., adding a new course). In Study 1, “Module Implementation in a Mathematics and Science Methods Course,” I describe the module activities, the CT knowledge of the teacher candidates who participated in the study, and how that knowledge evolved. I argue that participants’ understanding of CT expanded from a limited scope to a wide variety of practices and skills, and that the experience-first design helped them build knowledge of CT as distinct from knowledge of their discipline. In Study 2, “Use of CT Knowledge as Classroom Teachers,” I discuss sets of interviews with two teachers who had previously participated in the CT module in different years, analyzing commonalities and differences in their organization and use of CT knowledge. I argue that the Preparation for Future Learning (PFL) (Bransford & Schwartz, 1999) perspective is particularly important when considering the impact of the CT module. In Study 3, “A Faculty Workshop on CT Implementation with Mathematics and Science Methods Courses,” I discuss the effects of a summer workshop with methods instructors from universities throughout Maryland, noting different perspectives around what “counts” as a CT activity, and two implementation profiles for CT that instructors used that fall. I argue that the PFL perspective is important to consider for methods instructors’ CT integration.Item Perspectives on Power Structures in U.S.-Funded Foreign Aid(2024) Bloom, Heidi Nicole; Lin, Jing; Ginsburg, Mark; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)This research explores U.S.-funded foreign aid policies and practices from the perspectives of foreign aid professionals, focusing on their views regarding the impact of neocolonialism, obstacles in decolonizing the sector, and power dynamics within crucial aspects of foreign aid practices. Historically, U.S.-funded foreign aid has prioritized national interests, reflected colonial dynamics, and perpetuated neocolonial legacies. Using a decolonial lens as its conceptual framework, the study examines the discursive construction of meanings and relationships within the foreign aid sector. Through a mixed-methods approach involving 91 survey responses, 15 interviews, and post-interview questionnaires conducted one year later, the research gathers diverse perspectives across various foreign aid sectors. The findings underscore neocolonial practices, stressing the importance of local consultation in program design and highlighting challenges in funding allocation and political imperatives. While positive shifts prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic and the Black Lives Matter movement suggest progress toward power redistribution and diversity initiatives, skepticism remains about their depth. The study concludes with a systems approach, advocating for interventions at individual, organizational, and governmental levels to disrupt neocolonial practices, promote anti-racism, empower local counterparts, and reform policies. This comprehensive approach aims to enhance equity and effectiveness in the foreign aid ecosystem through self-reflection and critical analysis from the perspectives of foreign aid professionals.Item Leveraging Complexity Science to Promote Learning Analytics Adoption in Higher Education: An Embedded Case Study(2024) Moses, Phillip Scott; Ketelhut, Diane J; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)The Society for Learning Analytics Research (SoLAR) defines learning analytics as “the measurement, collection, analysis and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for purposes of understanding and optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs” (SoLAR, n.d.). To fully realize the potential of learning analytics, especially in its perceived ability to reveal previously hidden aspects of the learning process, researchers have called for more intentional approaches in order to harness resources and affect change. These researchers argue that without this coordinated effort to integrate learning analytics into the fabric of higher education institutions, the field will continue to languish, with learning analytics tools and approaches left forever incapable of affecting more systemic change. At the same time, other researchers focused on leadership and change management have recognized the difficulty, if not impossibility, of such top-down approaches. Instead, many researchers have pointed to the need to view higher education institutions through the lens of complexity science, and, in particular, to consider higher education institutions as complex adaptive systems (CAS) in which change tends to happen through the process of emergence. Within such a paradigm, change occurs from the ground up, as a result of countless interactions among many different agents (students, educators, and administrators, to name a few). Recognizing this conflict between the sort of top-down approaches suggested by many learning analytics researchers, and the ground-up reality recognized by many complexity science researchers, this dissertation project investigates how learning analytics usage is happening within a higher education institution. Using an embedded case study methodology to examine current learning analytics practices across multiple academic units and stakeholders within a single higher education institution, I apply a CAS framework to determine how this institution might expand and grow their approach to learning analytics across key areas.Item INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL EXCHANGES AND GLOBAL CLASSROOMS: EDUCATING GLOBAL CITIZENS FOR PEACE(2024) Weaver, Gregory; Lin, Jing; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)The outbreak of a global pandemic in the form of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the ever-increasing xenophobia on immigration policies have called for a need to reexamine how universities can internationalize beyond traditional classroom instruction methods. Virtual exchanges have been shown to provide students with a more equal opportunity to develop their global competencies and cultural skills than study abroad. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of virtual classroom exchanges in higher education for global citizenship development and peace education at a public institution in the United States. It examined university administrators, faculty, and student experiences, perceptions, and voices on global citizenship and peacebuilding within virtual exchange/global classrooms. The study utilized a qualitative case study approach. The qualitative approach consisted of interviews, classroom observations, and document analysis allowing for students and faculty to share their experiences of learning and teaching in the virtual global classroom respectively, and administrators managing the virtual global classroom. The research found that university and departmental administrators served as curators of virtual exchange enabling global citizenship development by providing support via funding, pedagogy models, and navigating several of the international partnerships. Faculty served as facilitators of global citizenship development both within the classroom and outside of the classroom, shaping the project-based projects and challenging their students to think in a non-local mindset. The student participants in the virtual exchanges experienced development of cultural competencies for global citizenship by gaining direct, collaborative experiences working with students of other countries. Promotion of peace education within the virtual exchanges can happen. Albeit as unintentional outcome, students were able to develop much-needed peacebuilding skills that otherwise would not have been possible due to this being the sole form of internalization open to them and their community at the time of the study.Item Dual Enrollment and College and Career Readiness: An Investigation of One School System(2024) Pearson, Olivia Weaver; Eubanks, Segun; Education Policy, and Leadership; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md.)Too few students are graduating from high school college and career-ready. For this dissertation, a qualitative design that included a data analysis was implemented to review a dual enrollment program and the impact of implementing various change ideas to increase enrollment of students in the program. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 was a quantitative review of dual enrollment eligibility and registration data of all comprehensive high schools in the studied district over four years. Phase 2 was a focus group comprised of school-based personnel involved with dual enrollment. The focus group provided a more in-depth understanding of school needs in support of dual enrollment. Three research questions guided the study: (1) What does data suggest about implementing change ideas designed to reduce barriers to enrollment in schools and the enrollment of eligible students in college courses? (2) What additional support of the dual enrollment program do school personnel suggest that may increase eligible student enrollment? (3) How do the school personnel’s perceptions of dual enrollment impact the way they interact with and support eligible dual enrollment students? Findings from this research suggest that schools that implemented a change idea observed an overall increase in dual enrollment registration over the four-year review period. The research findings also indicate that multiple factors can influence the implementation of a dual enrollment program such as the knowledge and support of the principal and counselor, and how dual enrollment fits into each school's overall culture.