Chemistry & Biochemistry Research Works

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Treefall
(Vantage Press, 1999-12) Hansen, John; Hansen, J. Norman; Hansen, John Norman
This file is an electronic facsimile of Treefall as published in book form by Vantage Press, 1999. It was authored by John Hansen, who is also J. Norman Hansen and John Norman Hansen at the University of Maryland, College Park. Hansen is a biochemist, and this is written from the perspective of a biochemistry professor. A record of Hansen's scientific publications is available at: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GkWED_QAAAAJ&hl=en Treefall originated as a philosophy. It presents philosophical arguments with respect to the nature of Reality. It also presents novel alternatives to conventional Physics, with respect to the mechanism of translocation, along with the basis of inertia and momentum. It is argued that the apparently simple process of translocation is actually a complex chemical reaction. For translocation to occur, an object has to have an input of energy to cross a transition state, in order become the same object in a new location. In the Appendix, this process is treated as a chemical reaction that obeys traditional chemical mechanisms, which always include transition states. The logical outcome of this idea is that, by the treatment of translocation as a chemical reaction, an equation can be derived that describes the process of translocation in terms of chemical kinetics. The gratifying aspect is that this equation includes terms for inertia and momentum. Inertia and momentum have heretofore not been explainable by first principles of physics. That 'translocation as a chemical reaction' provides explanations of inertia and momentum is an argument it favor of the concept.
A Matrix Universe as the Origin of Inertia and Momentum and Translocation as a Chemical Reaction
(2003-03) Hansen, John Norman
It is proposed that there is a matrix structure of the universe that persists both in the presence and absence of physical objects, and that chemical reactions involve reorganization of electronic orbitals within this matrix structure. The mechanism by which objects translocate within this matrix is similar to the chemical reaction mechanism, and therefore requires moving objects to cross transition-state energy barriers. This involves an input of energy, which is the origin of inertia and momentum. The matrix concept is used to derive equations of motion that conform to Newton’s laws and include terms for inertia and momentum.
Flexibility and Control of Protein-DNA Loops
(World Scientific Publishing Company, 2006-10) Kahn, Jason D.; Cheong, Raymond; Edelman, Laurence M.; Mehta, Ruchi A.; Morgan, Michael A.
Protein-DNA loops are essential for efficient transcriptional repression and activation. The geometry and stability of the archetypal Lac repressor tetramer (LacI)-DNA loop were investigated using designed hyperstable loops containing lac operators bracketing a sequence-directed bend. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays, DNA cyclization, and bulk and single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) demonstrate that the DNA sequence controls whether the LacI-DNA loop forms a compact loop with positive writhe or an open loop with little writhe. Monte Carlo methods for simulation of DNA ring closure were extended to DNA loops, including treatment of variable protein hinge angles. The observed distribution of topoisomer products upon cyclization provides a strong constraint on possible models. The experiments and modeling imply that LacI-DNA can adopt a wide range of geometries but has a strong intrinsic preference for an open form. The flexibility of LacI helps explain in vivo observations that DNA looping is less sensitive to DNA length and shape than would be expected from the physical properties of DNA. While DNA cyclization suggests two pools of precursor loops for the 9C14 construct, single-molecule FRET demonstrates a single population. This discrepancy suggests that the LacI-DNA structure is strongly influenced by flanking DNA.
Large and Stable Transmembrane Pores from Guanosine-Bile Acid Conjugates
(Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2008-02-15) Ma, Ling; Melegari, Monica; Colombini, Marco; Davis, Jeffery
v-RIO1 – an atypical protein kinase from the parasitic nematode Trichostrongylus vitrinus
(Springer Nature, 2008-09-22) Hu, Min; LaRonde-LeBlanc, Nicole; Sternberg, Paul W; Gasser, Robin B
Protein kinases are key enzymes that regulate a wide range of cellular processes, including cell-cycle progression, transcription, DNA replication and metabolic functions. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of phosphates to serine, threonine and tyrosine residues, thus playing functional roles in reversible protein phosphorylation. There are two main groups, namely eukaryotic protein kinases (ePKs) and atypical protein kinases (aPKs); RIO kinases belong to the latter group. While there is some information about RIO kinases and their roles in animals, nothing is known about them in parasites. This is the first study to characterise a RIO1 kinase from any parasite. A full-length cDNA (Tv-rio-1) encoding a RIO1 protein kinase (Tv-RIO1) was isolated from the economically important parasitic nematode Trichostrongylus vitrinus (Order Strongylida). The uninterrupted open reading frame (ORF) of 1476 nucleotides encoded a protein of 491 amino acids, containing the characteristic RIO1 motif LVHADLSEYNTL. Tv-rio-1 was transcribed at the highest level in the third-stage larva (L3), and a higher level in adult females than in males. Comparison with homologues from other organisms showed that protein Tv-RIO1 had significant homology to related proteins from a range of metazoans and plants. Amino acid sequence identity was most pronounced in the ATP-binding motif, active site and metal binding loop. Phylogenetic analyses of selected amino acid sequence data revealed Tv-RIO1 to be most closely related to the proteins in the species of Caenorhabditis. A structural model of Tv-RIO1 was constructed and compared with the published crystal structure of RIO1 of Archaeoglobus fulgidus (Af-Rio1). This study provides the first insights into the RIO1 protein kinases of nematodes, and a foundation for further investigations into the biochemical and functional roles of this molecule in biological processes in parasitic nematodes.
Construction and Characterization of a Torsional Pendulum that Detects a Novel Form of Cranial Energy
(2009) Hansen, John Norman; Lieberman, Joshua A.
A torsional pendulum consisting of a dome-shaped energy collector and a nylon monofilament support fiber was suspended above the cranium of a seated human subject and the effects of the subject on the oscillations of the pendulum were measured. There were dramatic effects, with FFT analysis of the oscillation signal showing many new frequencies in addition to the natural frequency of 0.034 Hz. The lowest new frequencies (0.0-0.002 Hz) were accompanied by a shift in the Center of Oscillation (COO) of the pendulum, and the higher frequencies were associated with changes in the amplitude of oscillation. The Delta COO (7.3 deg) and the amplitude (12 deg) effects were substantial, and would require forces equivalent to 34 and 56 mg, respectively. Residual effects on the Delta COO and amplitudes persisted for at least 30 min after the subject departed, and the rate at which they subsided conformed to the kinetics of a chemical relaxation process with a relaxation time of 600 sec. Shifts in the magnitude of the Delta COO with the subject present also conformed to chemical relaxations processes, with relaxation times of 35 and 200 sec. It is proposed that the energy that drives the anomalous oscillations when the subject is present is the result of enzyme-mediated energy transductions that convert metabolic energy into a form of energy that can affect the pendulum. Although highly speculative, it is suggested that aspects of quantum entanglement are involved in the energy transduction process.
A Pro-Drug Approach for Selective Modulation of AI-2-Mediated Bacterial Cell-to-Cell Communication
(MDPI, 2012-03-21) Guo, Min; Gamby, Sonja; Nakayama, Shizuka; Smith, Jacqueline; Sintim, Herman O.
The universal quorum sensing autoinducer, AI-2, is utilized by several bacteria. Analogs of AI-2 have the potential to modulate bacterial behavior. Selectively quenching the communication of a few bacteria, in the presence of several others in an ecosystem, using analogs of AI-2 is non-trivial due to the ubiquity of AI-2 processing receptors in many bacteria that co-exist. Herein, we demonstrate that when an AI-2 analog, isobutyl DPD (which has been previously shown to be a quorum sensing, QS, quencher in both Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium) is modified with ester groups, which get hydrolyzed once inside the bacterial cells, only QS in E. coli, but not in S. typhimurium, is inhibited. The origin of this differential QS inhibition could be due to differences in analog permeation of the bacterial membranes or ester hydrolysis rates. Such differences could be utilized to selectively target QS in specific bacteria amongst a consortium of other species that also use AI-2 signaling.
Endo-S-c-di-GMP Analogues-Polymorphism and Binding Studies with Class I Riboswitch
(MDPI, 2012-11-09) Zhou, Jie; Sayre, David A.; Wang, Jingxin; Pahadi, Nirmal; Sintim, Herman O.
C-di-GMP, a cyclic guanine dinucleotide, has been shown to regulate biofilm formation as well as virulence gene expression in a variety of bacteria. Analogues of c-di-GMP have the potential to be used as chemical probes to study c-di-GMP signaling and could even become drug leads for the development of anti-biofilm compounds. Herein we report the synthesis and biophysical studies of a series of c-di-GMP analogues, which have both phosphate and sugar moieties simultaneously modified (called endo-S-c-di-GMP analogues). We used computational methods to predict the relative orientation of the guanine nucleobases in c-di-GMP and analogues. DOSY NMR of the endo-S-c-di-GMP series showed that the polymorphism of c-di-GMP can be tuned with conservative modifications to the phosphate and sugar moieties (conformational steering). Binding studies with Vc2 RNA (a class I c-di-GMP riboswitch) revealed that conservative modifications to the phosphate and 2'-positions of c-di-GMP dramatically affected binding to class I riboswitch.
Sequencing of mitochondrial genomes of nine Aspergillus and Penicillium species identifies mobile introns and accessory genes as main sources of genome size variability
(Springer Nature, 2012-12-12) Joardar, Vinita; Abrams, Natalie F; Hostetler, Jessica; Paukstelis, Paul J; Pakala, Suchitra; Pakala, Suman B; Zafar, Nikhat; Abolude, Olukemi O; Payne, Gary; Andrianopoulos, Alex; Denning, David W; Nierman, William C
The genera Aspergillus and Penicillium include some of the most beneficial as well as the most harmful fungal species such as the penicillin-producer Penicillium chrysogenum and the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus, respectively. Their mitochondrial genomic sequences may hold vital clues into the mechanisms of their evolution, population genetics, and biology, yet only a handful of these genomes have been fully sequenced and annotated. Here we report the complete sequence and annotation of the mitochondrial genomes of six Aspergillus and three Penicillium species: A. fumigatus, A. clavatus, A. oryzae, A. flavus, Neosartorya fischeri (A. fischerianus), A. terreus, P. chrysogenum, P. marneffei, and Talaromyces stipitatus (P. stipitatum). The accompanying comparative analysis of these and related publicly available mitochondrial genomes reveals wide variation in size (25–36 Kb) among these closely related fungi. The sources of genome expansion include group I introns and accessory genes encoding putative homing endonucleases, DNA and RNA polymerases (presumed to be of plasmid origin) and hypothetical proteins. The two smallest sequenced genomes (A. terreus and P. chrysogenum) do not contain introns in protein-coding genes, whereas the largest genome (T. stipitatus), contains a total of eleven introns. All of the sequenced genomes have a group I intron in the large ribosomal subunit RNA gene, suggesting that this intron is fixed in these species. Subsequent analysis of several A. fumigatus strains showed low intraspecies variation. This study also includes a phylogenetic analysis based on 14 concatenated core mitochondrial proteins. The phylogenetic tree has a different topology from published multilocus trees, highlighting the challenges still facing the Aspergillus systematics. The study expands the genomic resources available to fungal biologists by providing mitochondrial genomes with consistent annotations for future genetic, evolutionary and population studies. Despite the conservation of the core genes, the mitochondrial genomes of Aspergillus and Penicillium species examined here exhibit significant amount of interspecies variation. Most of this variation can be attributed to accessory genes and mobile introns, presumably acquired by horizontal gene transfer of mitochondrial plasmids and intron homing.
Use of a Torsion Pendulum Balance to Detect and Characterize What May Be a Human Bioenergy Field
(Society for Scientific Exploration, 2013-06) Hansen, J. Norman; Lieberman, Joshua A.
Whereas the concept of bioenergy fields is thousands of years old, their existence has never been verified by scientific experiments designed to detect and measure them; so bioenergy fields have no scientific credibility. The instruments used for those experiments typically detect components of the electromagnetic spectrum. The experiments presented here utilize a detector that instead is sensitive to actual “pushing” forces that are capable of altering the momentum of a physical object such as a simple torsion pendulum balance that is suspended above a seated human subject. The experimental design includes a video camera connected to a computer that can detect and measure the pendulum movements with high precision, and store this information in a data file for later analysis. Experiments show that the pendulum detects and measures substantial forces that drastically alter the motions of the pendulum when a subject is seated under it. The following effects are consistently observed with every subject in every experiment performed up to now: 1) Substantial shifts of the center of oscillation of the pendulum; shifts as large as 2.2 cm (7 deg) requiring a force that is equivalent to 45 mg are observed, 2) Many new frequencies of oscillation of the pendulum are introduced when a subject is present, 3) Dramatic changes in the amplitudes of oscillation of the pendulum are observed throughout the experiment; increasing, decreasing, and increasing again, in patterns that resemble chemical relaxation processes, 4) These shifts of the center of oscillation, the new frequencies of oscillation, and the changes in amplitudes all persist for 30–60 min after the subject has left the pendulum. This is inconsistent with the physics of a simple harmonic oscillator such as a torsion pendulum, which should return to simple harmonic oscillation immediately after any exterior disturbances are discontinued. After conducting control experiments to rule out effects of air currents and other artifacts, it is concluded that the effects are exerted by some kind of force field that is generated by the subject seated under the pendulum. We know of no force, such as one within the electromagnetic spectrum that can account for these results. It may be that a conventional explanation for these surprising results will be discovered, but it is possible that we have observed a phenomenon that will require the development of new theoretical concepts. For now, it is important that other investigators repeat and extend our observations.
Book of Abstracts: 8th International Symposium on Macrocyclic and Supramolecular Chemistry
(2013-07-07) Davis, Jeffery; Flood, Amar; Isaacs, Lyle
This pdf file is the finalized version of the book of abstracts for the 8th International Symposium on Macrocyclic Chemistry held in Arlington, Virginia, USA from July 7-11, 2013
Small Molecule Inhibitors of AI-2 Signaling in Bacteria: State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives for Anti-Quorum Sensing Agents
(MDPI, 2013-08-29) Guo, Min; Gamby, Sonja; Zheng, Yue; Sintim, Herman O.
Bacteria respond to different small molecules that are produced by other neighboring bacteria. These molecules, called autoinducers, are classified as intraspecies (i.e., molecules produced and perceived by the same bacterial species) or interspecies (molecules that are produced and sensed between different bacterial species). AI-2 has been proposed as an interspecies autoinducer and has been shown to regulate different bacterial physiology as well as affect virulence factor production and biofilm formation in some bacteria, including bacteria of clinical relevance. Several groups have embarked on the development of small molecules that could be used to perturb AI-2 signaling in bacteria, with the ultimate goal that these molecules could be used to inhibit bacterial virulence and biofilm formation. Additionally, these molecules have the potential to be used in synthetic biology applications whereby these small molecules are used as inputs to switch on and off AI-2 receptors. In this review, we highlight the state-of-the-art in the development of small molecules that perturb AI-2 signaling in bacteria and offer our perspective on the future development and applications of these classes of molecules.
Parts List for Pendulum of Hansen & Lieberman compiled by J. Norman Hansen nhansen@umd.edu
(2014-10) Hansen, J. Norman
This is a Parts List that provides instructions for the construction of the pendulum that was employed by Hansen and Lieberman. The Hansen and Lieberman articles are:Construction and Characterization of a Torsional Pendulum that Detects a Novel Form of Cranial Energy. And Use of a Torsion Pendulum Balance to Detect and Characterize What May Be a Human Bioenergy Field http://hdl.handle.net/1903/9421 http://hdl.handle.net/1903/15607
A Reply to van den Berg and van der Sluys: Effects Resembling a Bio-Field on a Torsion Pendulum Cannot Be Caused by Heated Air Currents Generated by the Subject
(Society of Scientific Exploration, 2015) Hansen, J. Norman; Lieberman, Joshua A
A Reply to van den Berg and van der Sluys: Effects Resembling a Bio-Field on a Torsion Pendulum Cannot Be Caused by Heated Air Currents Generated by the Subject
Griffithsin tandemers: flexible and potent lectin inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus
(Springer Nature, 2015-01-23) Moulaei, Tinoush; Alexandre, Kabamba B; Shenoy, Shilpa R; Meyerson, Joel R; Krumpe, Lauren RH; Constantine, Brian; Wilson, Jennifer; Buckheit, Robert W Jr.; McMahon, James B; Subramaniam, Sriram; Wlodawer, Alexander; O’Keefe, Barry R
The lectin griffithsin (GRFT) is a potent antiviral agent capable of prevention and treatment of infections caused by a number of enveloped viruses and is currently under development as an anti-HIV microbicide. In addition to its broad antiviral activity, GRFT is stable at high temperature and at a broad pH range, displays little toxicity and immunogenicity, and is amenable to large-scale manufacturing. Native GRFT is a domain-swapped homodimer that binds to viral envelope glycoproteins and has displayed mid-picomolar activity in cell-based anti-HIV assays. Previously, we have engineered and analyzed several monomeric forms of this lectin (mGRFT) with anti-HIV EC50 values ranging up to 323 nM. Based on our previous analysis of mGRFT, we hypothesized that the orientation and spacing of the carbohydrate binding domains GRFT were key to its antiviral activity. Here we present data on engineered tandem repeats of mGRFT (mGRFT tandemers) with antiviral activity at concentrations as low as one picomolar in whole-cell anti-HIV assays. mGRFT tandemers were analyzed thermodynamically, both individually and in complex with HIV-1 gp120. We also demonstrate by dynamic light scattering and cryo-electron microscopy that mGRFT tandemers do not aggregate HIV virions. This establishes that, although the intra-virion crosslinking of HIV envelope glycoproteins is likely integral to their activity, the antiviral activity of these lectins is not due to virus aggregation caused by inter-virion crosslinking. The engineered tandemer constructs of mGRFT may provide novel and powerful agents for prevention of infection by HIV and other enveloped viruses.
An intercalation-locked parallel-stranded DNA tetraplex
(Oxford University Press, 2015-01-27) Tripathi, Shailesh; Zhang, Daoning; Paukstelis, Paul J.
DNA has proved to be an excellent material for nanoscale construction because complementary DNA duplexes are programmable and structurally predictable. However, in the absence of Watson– Crick pairings, DNA can be structurally more diverse. Here, we describe the crystal structures of d(ACTCGGATGAT) and the brominated derivative, d(ACBrUCGGABrUGAT). These oligonucleotides form parallel-stranded duplexes with a crystallographically equivalent strand, resulting in the first examples of DNA crystal structures that contains four different symmetric homo base pairs. Two of the parallel-stranded duplexes are coaxially stacked in opposite directions and locked together to form a tetraplex through intercalation of the 5’-most A–A base pairs between adjacent G–G pairs in the partner duplex. The intercalation region is a new type of DNA tertiary structural motif with similarities to the i-motif. 1H–1H nuclear magnetic resonance and native gel electrophoresis confirmed the formation of a parallel-stranded duplex in solution. Finally, we modified specific nucleotide positions and added d(GAY) motifs to oligonucleotides and were readily able to obtain similar crystals. This suggests that this parallel-stranded DNA structure may be useful in the rational design of DNA crystals and nanostructures.
Histone post-translational modifications in frontal cortex from human donors with Alzheimer’s disease
(Springer Nature, 2015-10-01) Anderson, Kyle W.; Turko, Illarion V.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the sixth leading cause of death and the most costly disease in the US. Despite the enormous impact of AD, there are no treatments that delay onset or stop disease progression currently on the market. This is partly due to the complexity of the disease and the largely unknown pathogenesis of sporadic AD, which accounts for the vast majority of cases. Epigenetics has been implicated as a critical component to AD pathology and a potential “hot spot” for treatments. Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) are a key element in epigenetic regulation of gene expression and are known to be associated with the pathology of numerous diseases. Investigation of histone PTMs can help elucidate AD pathology and identify targets for therapies. A multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry assay was used to measure changes in abundance of several histone PTMs in frontal cortex from human donors affected with AD (n = 6) and age-matched, normal donors (n = 6). Of the changes observed, notable decreases in methylation of H2B residue K108 by 25 % and H4 residue R55 by 35 % were measured and are likely associated with hydrogen bonding networks important for nucleosome stability. Additionally, a 91 % increase in ubiquitination of K120 on H2B was measured as well as an apparent loss in acetylation of the region near the N-terminus of H4. Our method of quantification was also determined to be precise and robust, signifying measured changes were representative of true biological differences between donors and sample groups. We are the first to report changes in methylation of H2B K108, methylation of H4 R55, and ubiquitination of H2B K120 in frontal cortex from human donors with AD. These notable PTM changes may be of great importance in elucidating the epigenetic mechanism of AD as it relates to disease pathology. Beyond the structural and functional impacts of the changes we have measured, the sites of altered PTMs may be used to identify enzymes responsible for their modulation, which could be used as prospective drug targets for highly specific AD therapies.
MEDYAN: Mechanochemical Simulations of Contraction and Polarity Alignment in Actomyosin Networks
(2016) Popov, Konstantin; Komianos, James; Papoian, Garegin A.
Active matter systems, and in particular the cell cytoskeleton, exhibit complex mechanochemical dynamics that are still not well understood. While prior computational models of cytoskeletal dynamics have lead to many conceptual insights, an important niche still needs to be filled with a high-resolution structural modeling framework, which includes a minimally-complete set of cytoskeletal chemistries, stochastically treats reaction and diffusion processes in three spatial dimensions, accurately and efficiently describes mechanical deformations of the filamentous network under stresses generated by molecular motors, and deeply couples mechanics and chemistry at high spatial resolution. To address this need, we propose a novel reactive coarse-grained force field, as well as a publicly available software package, named the Mechanochemical Dynamics of Active Networks (MEDYAN) , for simulating active network evolution and dynamics (available at www.medyan.org). This model can be used to study the non-linear, far from equilibrium processes in active matter systems, in particular, comprised of interacting semi-flexible polymers embedded in a solution with complex reaction-diffusion processes. In this work, we applied MEDYAN to investigate a contractile actomyosin network consisting of actin filaments, alpha-actinin cross-linking proteins, and non-muscle myosin IIA mini-filaments. We found that these systems undergo a switch-like transition in simulations from a random network to ordered, bundled structures when cross-linker concentration is increased above a threshold value, inducing contraction driven by myosin II mini-filaments. Our simulations also show how myosin II mini-filaments, in tandem with cross-linkers, can produce a range of actin filament polarity distributions and alignment, which is crucially dependent on the rate of actin filament turnover and the actin filament's resulting super-diffusive behavior in the actomyosin-cross-linker system. We discuss the biological implications of these findings for the arc formation in lamellipodium-to-lamellum architectural remodeling. Lastly, our simulations produce force-dependent accumulation of myosin II, which is thought to be responsible for their mechanosensation ability, also spontaneously generating myosin II concentration gradients in the solution phase of the simulation volume.
Extracellular vesicle proteomes reflect developmental phases of Bacillus subtilis
(Springer Nature, 2016-03-09) Kim, Yeji; Edwards, Nathan; Fenselau, Catherine
Extracellular vesicles (EV) are spherical membrane-bound vesicles with nano-scale diameters, which are shed to the extracellular region by most eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Bacterial EV are proposed to contribute to intercellular communication, bacterial survival and human pathogenesis as a novel secretion system. EV have been characterized from many Gram-negative species and, more recently, from several vegetative Gram-positive bacteria. Further characterization of EV and their molecular cargos will contribute to understanding bacterial physiology and to developing therapeutic approaches. Bacillus subtilis were observed to release EV to a similar extent during sporulation as during the vegetative growth phase. However, the two vesicular cargos show qualitatively and quantitatively different proteomes. Among 193 total proteins identified across both samples, 61 were shown to be significantly more abundant in EV shed by sporulating cells, with (log) ratio of spectral counts RSC > 1 and Fisher-exact test FDR < 5 %. Sixty-two proteins were found to be significantly more abundant in EV shed by vegetative cells. Membrane fusion was shown to take place between these EVs and Gram-positive cells. Biogenesis of EV is a continuous process over the entire life cycle of this sporulating bacterium. The formation of EV during sporulation is strongly supported by the delineation of protein content that differs from the proteome of EV formed by vegetative spores.
3D DNA Crystals and Nanotechnology
(MDPI, 2016-08-18) Paukstelis, Paul J.; Seeman, Nadrian C.
DNA’s molecular recognition properties have made it one of the most widely used biomacromolecular construction materials. The programmed assembly of DNA oligonucleotides has been used to create complex 2D and 3D self-assembled architectures and to guide the assembly of other molecules. The origins of DNA nanotechnology are rooted in the goal of assembling DNA molecules into designed periodic arrays, i.e., crystals. Here, we highlight several DNA crystal structures, the progress made in designing DNA crystals, and look at the current prospects and future directions of DNA crystals in nanotechnology.

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