Human Development & Quantitative Methodology
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The departments within the College of Education were reorganized and renamed as of July 1, 2011. This department incorporates the former departments of Measurement, Statistics & Evaluation; Human Development; and the Institute for Child Study.
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Item Special Classes and Group Therapy: An Evaluation of Their Effects on Achievement and Behavior in a Public School Setting(1971) Weinstein, Howard G.; Goering, Jacob; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, MD)This investigation was designed to test the relative effectiveness of four educational-treatment methods of providing adequate services for children with special learning problems in elementary school Special Learning Problems classes. The focus was on the relative effectiveness of these methods in bringing about positive achievement and behavior change. The subjects were 50 elementary school pupils enrolled in e ight existing Special Learning Problems (SLP) classes in Fairfax County, Virginia. The Ss represented a wide range of behavioral and/or educational disorders reflected in an equally wide range of inappropriate behavior and/or educational retardation of at least one, and generally two years. Each of the eight pre-established SLP classes was randomly assigned to one of four educational-treatment groups. Two SLP classes were assigned to each treatment group. The experimental methods consisted of special class placement and: (A) "Child Therapy Only" (CTO); (B) "Parent Therapy-Only" (PTO); (C) "Child and Parent Therapy" (CPT). In addition, a "Special Class-Only" (SEO) control group was included. Subjects in the CTO and CPT groups participated in 24, 90-minute group therapy sessions. The parents of the children in the CPT and PTO groups received 24, 90-minute parent group therapy sessions. The SEO (control) group did not receive group therapy nor did their parents. Group therapy sessions were conducted by trained and experienced group therapists from the Mental Health Center. The California Achievement Tests, The Wide Range Achievement Test, the Behavior Rating Scale, and the Human Figure Drawing Test were administered in mid-October, 1969 and repeated in mid-April, 1970. The difference between pre- and post-test scores were computed and the differences between treatment groups' mean gain scores were tested for significance by means of t-ratios. The null hypotheses tested were: Hypothesis 1. There will be no significant differences in mean gain scores on any of the achievement measures or on the behavior ratings between the control group (SEO) and any of the experimental groups (CTO, PTO, CPT). Hypothesis 2. No significant differences in mean gain scores on any of the achievement measures or on the behavior ratings will be found between the three experimental groups (CTO, PTO, CPT). Hypothesis 3. There will b e no significant differences in mean gain scores on any of the achievement measures or on the behavior ratings between those students designated as NEW (1st year SLP) and those FORMER students in SLP classes. The analyses of the results from the achievement and behavior measures provided, with only three exceptions, support for not rejecting the null hypotheses. With regard to Hypotheses 1 and 2, although only two comparisons reached statistical significance (i. e. , the CPT group obtained significantly higher CAT-Reading and WRAT-Arithmetic gains than the SEO group), it was found that the achievement mean gain scores were generally greater for the CPT group than for either the SEO group or for either of the other two experimental groups (CTO and PTO). In contrast, the SEO group obtained a greater behavior scale mean gain than any of the three experimental groups (CTO, PTO, CPT), although this difference did not reach significance. With only one exception (WRAT-Arithmetic), no significant differences were found between the NEW and FORMER groups. Subsequent to the experimental period, the NEW students demonstrated a significantly greater mean gain in Arithmetic than their FORMER group counterparts. Behaviorally, the FORMER group obtained a greater mean behavior rating gain than the NEW group, although not statistically significant. In general, the present findings provided no evidence for differential favorable effects from any of the educational-treatment methods utilized in terms of significantly greater achievement or behavioral gains. However, some noted trends were suggestive of the fact that perhaps each of the four educational-treatment methods is best suited for different situations, goals, and subjects. Further research was recommended.Item The Effectiveness of Differential Social Reinforcement Strategies in Facilitating Achievement Behavior of Lower Socioeconomic Status, Primary Grade Children(1971) Fishman, Harold; Matteson, Richard; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, MD)This study was designed to ascertain whether Positive Social Reinforcement (PSR), Negative Social Reinforcement (NSR) and the condition of no verbal feedback (Control) have a differential motivational effect on the achievement behavior of low socioeconomic status, primary grade Ss. Two related objectives of this research were : (a) to determine whether black and white Ss are differentially motivated to achieve in response to the aforementioned three social reinforcement-feedback contingencies and (b) to determine whether Ss who are at different developmental levels are differentially motivated to achieve by these three classes of social reinforcement-feedback parameters.Item The Effects of Variation in the Amount of Play Materials on the Play Behavior of the Preschool Child(1978) Rechsteiner, Ann E.; Leeper, Sarah L.; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, MD)Major questions have arisen concerning the function of play in the development of the young child. Changing attitudes towards the significance of play reflect changing social patterns. The present study was concerned with the effect that a removal of a specified amount of play material had on the play behavior of young children. Ten intact groups of children from the Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Area ranging in age from three to five years old were studied by this researcher. A time sampling technique using a modified version of DUSOPAC was used to measure the play behavior of the groups. The data collected by the observers were compiled and analysed using a one way ANOVA for a repeated measure design for each of the eleven variables (Disruptive, Unoccupied, Solitary, Onlooker, Parallel, Associative, Cooperative, Not Play, Child-Child, Child-Adult, Child-Self.) The findings indicated that a significant relationship (at the .05 significance level) existed between the amount of social play observed and the amount of play equipment that was available to the young child. Less social play was observed when the material was removed on the first treatment day than when the material was present. No significant relationships were observed between the amount of equipment available and the amount of non-social play, the amount of child-child interaction, the amount of child-self interaction, or the amount of child-adult interaction that occurred. Investigation of the mean score values revealed trends for both interaction patterns and play behavior. Females were found to display more child-self interaction behavior and males more child-child interaction behavior. Also, for all days of observation, regardless of treatment, the most frequently occurring interaction behavior was child-child followed by child-self. The least frequently occurring interaction behavior was child-adult. For play behavior for all days of observation, regardless of treatment, males displayed more disruptive, unoccupied, associative, cooperative, parallel and social play behavior than did females. Females were found to display more solitary, onlooker, not-play and non-social play behavior than were males. These findings were not in agreement with Langlois, Gottfried and Seay (1973), and Sitzky, Haywood and Isett (1970 ). The results of this study seem to indicate that there is a need for more research to 1) update earlier studies; 2) study the role of play in the development of social interactions; 3) investigate saturation levels of equipment as they relate to a child's play; 4) to explore in more detail environmental influences on play behavior.Item An Examination of the Effects of Three Testing Techniques on Word Accuracy, Comprehension, Rate, and Percentages of Semantic Substitutions in Oral Reading(1972) Stafford, Gerald Edward; Sullivan, Dorothy D.; Early Childhood Elementary Education; University of Maryland (College Park, Md); Digital Repository at the University of MarylandAuthoritative opinion of long standing has recommended that purposes for reading be established prior to reading. In spite of such recommendations, testing procedures for oral reading typically have not involved reading for purposes. Furthermore, research designed to examine the effectiveness of reading for purposes has generally produced divergent findings. Superior reading performance has been observed when purposes for reading were established prior to reading as well as when they were not established prior to reading. Moreover, research designed to examine the effectiveness of purposeful reading has been confined almost exclusively to the area of silent reading. To date not a single investigation has been found which clearly illustrated the effects of purposes for reading on oral reading performance. The present study was designed to investigate the relationships between three testing techniques and performance on four dimensions of oral reading performance. The three testing techniques employed in this study were identified as (1) careful reading, (2) reading for specific purposes, and (3) reading for general purposes. The four dimensions of oral reading performance on which comparisons were made involved oral reading word accuracy, comprehension, rate, and the percentages of semantic substitutions. The four research hypotheses examined in the investigation are stated as follows: 1. There is a difference in oral reading word accuracy under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 2. There is a difference in oral reading comprehension under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 3. There is a difference in oral reading rate under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes, and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. 4. There is a difference in the percentages of semantic substitutions made under the treatments careful reading, reading for specific purposes and reading for general purposes for third and sixth graders. To obtain data for this study, forty-five third grade and forty-five sixth grade subjects were randomly selected from two elementary schools. The ninety subjects chosen for the study were then randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups. Each subject was requested to read orally in the manner dictated by the treatment group to which he had been assigned. The materials from which subjects read were the appropriate passages from Form A of the Gilmore Oral Reading Test (1852). Measurements for oral reading word accuracy, comprehension, rate, and percentages of semantic substitutions were computed for each subject. A 2x3 analysis of variance design was used to test for differential treatment effects. An analysis of the data from the study indicted that none of the research hypotheses was supported at the .05 level of significance. The present study led to recommendations in the areas of theory, diagnosis, teaching, and research. Authoritative opinion has suggested that many of the classification schemes used for analyzing oral reading errors are a theoretical. It is possible that performance differences not evidenced through the classification scheme employed in this study could be found using a classification scheme having a sounder theoretical basis. It was therefore recommended that the effects of the three treatments employed in this study be reexamined using a classification scheme built around a theory of reading. In contrast to investigation in the area of silent reading, the present study did not evidence differences in reading performance under the treatments employed. The failure of oral reading performance to vary in the manner observed for silent reading suggested that the two forms of reading are in some respects dissimilar. It was therefore recommended that that diagnostic procedures include measures of both oral and silent reading . Recent investigation has suggested that children often need greater skill in reading for different purposes. One possible explanation for why differential treatment effects were not obtained in the present study was that subjects did not have skill in reading for different purposes. The recommendation was made, therefore, that classroom teachers place greater. emphasis on teaching children to read for different purposes. The following recommendations were made for the area of research. (1) It was recommended that research be undertaken to develop measures of oral reading comprehension, rate, and percentages of semantic substitutions which have greater test-retest reliability. (2) The sample chosen for this study was restricted to third and sixth graders whose performance on a standardized silent reading test placed them in the second or third quartile of the normative population. A replication of this study using subjects from other grade and performance levels was recommended. (3) It was recommended that investigation be undertaken to further examine the relationships between oral and silent reading. Special consideration should be given to identifying those factors in which a satisfactory generalization from oral reading to silent reading can be made. (4) This study did not evidence differential treatment effects using reading materials and purposes for reading supplied by an examiner. It was recommended that investigation be undertaken to examine the effectiveness of using pupil-selected materials and pupil purposes for reading.Item Self-Concept and Race: Basis for Reactions to a Short Story?(1976) Reggy, Mae Alice Turner; Secondary Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)The purpose of this study was to assess the identification responses of black female tenth-grade readers in relationship to the reader's self-concept and the race -- black or white -- of the central character in an investigator-constructed short story. The problem under investigation centers around two major probes: 1. Do black female readers identify more with a white central character than with a black central character? 2. Do the self-concepts of black female readers influence their capacity to identify with a central character in a short story? The study has significance for the potential contribution it may make in helping teachers, librarians, curriculum supervisors and others understand the ways in which black female tenth-grade readers respond to characters in a particular short story and select written works accordingly. A sample of 24 black female tenth-graders in a creative arts high school in the D.C. Public Schools reacted to two versions of an investigator-constructed short story about the physical self-concept of a black (version A1) and white (version A2) central character. Divided into two groups (A, B), the subjects responded to version A1 or A2 using a questionnaire constructed by the investigator to measure the subjects' identification responses. Both groups were administered the Personal Orientation Inventory, a standardized test used to measure their self-concept. Data from these two instruments were analyzed using a standard t test and a Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient to test the following research hypotheses: H1 The mean score for Group A as measured by the Self-Involvement Questionnaire will be greater than the mean score for Group B. H2 There is a positive correlation between students' scores obtained on the Self-Involvement Questionnaire and scores obtained on the Personal Orientation Inventory. The findings of the study lead to the conclusions that, within the limitation and implementation procedures of the study, the self-concepts of black female readers have an effect upon their capacity to identify with the central character in a short story. Students with high self-concepts tended to identify with the central character in a short story regardless of the race of the central character and, conversely, that students with low self-concepts tended to reject the central character, black or white. The study also showed that black, tenth-grade female readers do not identify more with a black central character than with a white central character. The major implication for teaching is that teachers, librarians, curriculum supervisors and others need to consider the self-concepts of their students in selecting and assigning written works.Item Suburban Runaways: A Follow-Up Study(1976) Olson, Lucy; Davidson, Marie; Institute for Child Study; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)This study grew out of an investigation begun twelve years ago on runaway youth from a Maryland suburb of Washington, D.C . The children who participated in the original study have since grown up and the current research was undertaken to find out how they fared over this important interval. The current study addressed itself to several aspects of social functioning among the young people in the sample. The questions were: 1) How have the former runaways experienced school, jobs, and "trouble" ? 2) Do their experiences within these dimensions differ from those of their siblings? and 3) Do the former runaways differ among themselves -- repeaters from non-repeaters -- in their experiences at school, on the job, and "in trouble"? These questions provided the focus for the follow-up study. The sample consisted of young people between 23 and 27 years of age who had been interviewed in depth during an earlier study and their non-runaway siblings who were closest in age and, where possible, of the same sex as the former runaways. Both former runaways and their siblings were interviewed in depth using a fixed-schedule, open-response approach. Questions focussed on social development over the last dozen years and particularly on experiences in school, on the job, and "in trouble". The data were presented in a series of composite "cases" or profiles taken from the experiences of several of the former runaways and their siblings. School, jobs, and "trouble" were each treated separately, and selected comparisons were made between the experiences of former runaways and those of their siblings. The follow-up study revealed that those who ran away experienced considerable hardship during this twelve-year interval en route to adulthood. They curtailed their schooling because of difficulty and unhappiness in the classroom. They have worked only sporadically at menial jobs which have been experienced as frustrating drudgery. They have gotten in trouble with the law or have required the assistance of social agencies and institutions because of special problems they have had. Differences between former runaways and their siblings were found in each of the areas of school, jobs, and "trouble". The young people who ran away experienced gr eater difficulty in school than their siblings: they fared worse academically, had poorer grades, and more retentions . They also had greater difficulty in adjusting socially. They were more often dismissed from class, sent to visit the principal, and suspended from school. Less than half of the former runaways have regular jobs today. The others have been unable to hold a job for more than a period of months. This finding contrasts sharply with that for their siblings all but one of whom are now working at regular jobs. Moreover, the siblings have more professional , hi g her paying jobs than the former runaways who work . Finally, the former runaways have had a greater amount of trouble -- much of it more serious-- than their siblings. Most have been charged with offenses ranging in seriousness from "drunk and disorderly" to "burglary" and "assault and battery". Two are now serving jail terms. In contrast, only two siblings have been arrested and, in both cases, the charges were dropped . The findings were similar for nervous and emotional troubles. In all the areas of functioning that were examined, the young people who ran away from home repeatedly appear to have fared worse than those who ran only once. A further, serendipidous finding, not anticipated in this study, was a class difference: middle-class runaways appear to be functioning more poorly than their working-class counterparts .Item The Effects of Student Decision Making Upon Spelling Achievement and Attitude Toward the Spelling Curriculum(1973) Gambrell, Linda B.; Wilson, Robert M.; Early Childhood Elementary Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether spelling achievement and attitude toward the spelling curriculum differ under three different approaches to decision making i n the spelling curriculum. The three different approaches to decision making were: (1) teacher decision making (T1), (2) combination teacher and student decision making (T2), and (J) student decision making (T3). With respect to the three different approaches to decision making , the second purpose of the study was to determine whether spelling achievement and attitude toward spelling were differentially affected by grade level . The population was forty volunteer teachers and their classrooms in Prince Georges County, Maryland. Each third, fourth, and fifth grade classroom was randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups. In T1 the teacher made decisions for students concerning the spelling content and spelling study methods, in T2 the students made decisions concerning the spelling content and the teacher made decisions concerning study methods, and in T3 the students made decisions concerning both the content and study methods related to the spelling curriculum. In this study student decision making was implemented through the use of a contracting procedure. Data for this study consisted of four scores for each student: (1) Spelling Achievement Test (pretest), ( 2) Spelling Achievement Test (post-test), (J) tabulation of total number of words spelled correctly on weekly spelling tests, and (4) Spelling Attitude Scale. Classroom mean scores provided the basic data for analysis. The data were analyzed by means of analysis of variance and covariance procedures employing a J x J factorial design. The following conclusions were supported: (1) There is no difference in spelling achievement under (a) teacher decision making (T1), (b) combination teacher and student decision making (T2) , and (c) student decision making (T3). (2) There is no interaction effect between the different degrees of student decision making and grade levels on spelling achievement . (J) There is no difference in attitude toward the spelling curriculum under the three different degrees of student decision making. (4) There is no interaction effect between the different degrees of student decision making and grade levels in attitude toward the spelling curriculum. The following implication for theory was suggested by this investigations Student decision making appears to result in student achievement and attitude that is equivalent to that under teacher decision making in the spelling curriculum. Students appear to be effective in determining content and study methods in the spelling curriculum. Theorjes of decision making must be developed which deal with decision making as it relates to the learning process. The data suggest the following implications for teaching , (1) In learning situations where students can be involved in currjculum decision making , they may learn as willingly and satisfactorily as under teacher decision making. (2) Contracting is an effective and practical technique for individualizing instruction and incorporating student decision making in the spelling curriculum. Implications for research as suggested by this investigation include the following, (1) There is a need to investigate the effects of student decision making upon achievement and attitude by (a) using more broadly representative samples of students, (b) looking at effects over a longer period of time, (c) using different testing instruments, or (d) implementing student decision making in other areas of the curriculum. (2) Student decision making effects might be interwoven with the quality of the negotiation between the teacher and the student, especially with respect to the provisions for commitment , success, and feedback concerning growth in decision making. An in depth analysis of the negotiation interaction might provide useful information concerning the effectiveness of specific aspects of the negotiation procedure. (3) An in depth analysis which would compare the achievement and attitude of individual students under different degrees of student decision making may reveal information concerning the most effective decision making situation for the individual student.Item A Three-Dimensional Theory of Group Process in Adolescent Dyads(1974) Armstrong, Stephen H.; Hatfield, Agnes; Institute for Child Study; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)This dissertation tests a three-dimensional theory of group process originally proposed by William Schutz (1958) . His theory is that three process variables can account for group interaction: Inclusion, the degree to which persons in a group feel "in," "a part of" the group; Control, the degree to which persons can command and direct the group's resources, means, and goals; and Affection, the degree of relatedness that persons in the group feel for one another. Eighty-nine tenth grade suburban high school students completed a sociometric rating of their intact homeroom classes, and twenty-four pairs of students were randomly selected to participate in the experimental portion of the study. The dyads were selected along the Inclusion and Affection dimensions, each at two levels. Each pair played eight ten-choice games of "Prisoner's Dilemma, " a two-person, two-choice nonzero sum game, under an experimental instruction set of "trust and cooperation." The eight payoff matrices were systematically varied to provide two levels of Asymmetry and two levels of Fate Control, which are taken as the operational equivalent of the Control dimension. The matrices were randomly ordered for each pair. The design is a 2^4 factorial with repeated measures over two dimensions, analyzed as analysis of variance. The data is analyzed only for those matrices which give less payoff ("go against") the first player in the dyad to make a choice, since these matrices alone offer an incentive to trust the partner. There are six dependent variables in this study: (1) one's own number of trusting choices in each ten-choice game; (2) the partner's number of trusting choices; (3) one's total estimate of the partner's trustworthiness; (4) one's total number of years in jail; (5) the partner's total number of years in jail; and (6) the combined number of years in jail for both players. The results show a significant effect only for Fate Control, and only on three dependent variables: (1) total estimate of the partner's trustworthiness; (2) one's total number of years in jail, and (3) the partner's total number of years in jail. In general, the level of trusting behavior was high across all experimental conditions. The results are only partial support for the theory of group interaction. Fate Control is the one operational dimension most clearly linked with the experimental task demands, and therefore cannot be seen as strong support of Schutz's theory, especially in view of the lack of significant results on any other dimension. Affection, Inclusion, and Asymmetry of the payoff matrix were not significantly associated with any dependent variable. Second, factors beyond the experimenter's control may have contributed to the null results. For instance, students may have been "loyally" trusting to other students at a very high level perhaps because of their role vis a vis adult authority as manifested by the experimenter. Moreover, an overall lack of interpersonal interaction in the homeroom setting may have attenuated the results. Third, there is wide variance for each of the dependent variables, small effect size, and, consequently, the heightened chance of a Type II error. Moreover, the dependent variables are highly correlated, further limiting the potency of this experimental test. Finally, Schultz's theory is one of process, and the variables used in this study can capture this process only insofar as the dyad's structure reflects the process. To the extent that the structural measurements used in this study may not fully reflect palpable interpersonal process, the experiment, not the theory, may be held deficient. In summary, this attempt to empirically assess this three-dimensional theory of group process is not wholely successful. The experimental analogue situation (the Prisoner's Dilemma) gives only partial support to the theory.Item The Effect of a Sub-culturally Appropriate Language upon Achievement in Mathematical Content(1970) Knight, Genevieve M.; Walbesser, Henry H.; Mathematics Education; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md)In this investigation one hypothesis was considered. The question--does the use of a sub-culturally appropriate language have an effect upon achievement in an academic content--was tested. The subjects used in this investigation were children in a Follow Through Program in a school which is located in a disadvantaged neighborhood. None of the subjects had been in school for more than three years. The sample was a typical representation of the enrollment of schools in the city of Washington , D.C.-- 98 percent of the subjects were black. The instructional sequence was composed of concepts from nonmetric geometry. The language patterns used for the sub-culturally appropriate language were obtain ed from a two-year study in the speech-community of the given school. These language patterns were analyzed and classified by the Center for Applied Linguistics. After the instructional sequence was constructed, a parallel instructional sequence was rewritten in a subculturally appropriate language. Two groups of randomly assigned subjects were taught the appropriate sequence and given appropriate assessment tasks. The subjects taught and assessed using a subculturally appropriate language were able to successfully perform more task on the assessment task than those subjects who were taught and assessed using standard language. Hence, there exists some evidence to support the hypothesis that a sub-culturally appropriate language does have some effect upon achievement in academic content. The hypothesis was supported at the 0.05 level of significance. These findings suggest that further research is needed for the identification of contributing variables and the degree of interaction of each of these variables.Item A Study of the Effects on Attitude and Achievement of Mode of Processing in a Secondary School Course in Computer Programming(1976) Moulds, William Joseph; Walbesser, Henry; Human Development & Quantitative Methodology; Digital Repository at the University of Maryland; University of Maryland (College Park, Md); ILLiad # 1354711achievement of frequency of association with the computer and turnaround time in a beginning course in computer programming in the secondary school. The treatments frequency (F) and turn-around time (T) each existed at three levels. The frequency treatment involved the number of hours per semester the students were in direct association The three levels were: HO - one hour per semester with the computer. Hl - one hour per week per semester; and, H3 - three hours per week per semester. The second treatment, turn-around time, dealt with the time delay experienced by the student between submittal of his program deck and return of his printout. This treatment existed at the following three levels: PI-printouts returned on the same day as submittal of the program; PD-printouts returned in about 24 hours; and, PW-printouts returned in about one week. At the beginning of the course, each student was administered the Aptitude Test for Programming Personnel to determine his aptitude in programming and to serve as a covariate in the analysis of covariance, A multiple choice final examination was administered to all students at the end of the 16 week semester to test their understanding of FORTRAN programming concepts. A 3 x 3 analysis of covariance design, using the aptitude scores for covariate, was used to analyze the results. This analysis served as the basis for conclusions to the following research hypotheses. 1. More frequent access to the computer increases performance. 2. Immediacy of feedback increases student achievement. The first hypothesis is supported by the findings of this experiment. Students in direct association with the computer most frequently (three hours per week) scored significantly higher on the final examination at the .05 level than students in either of the other two levels of this treatment. The second hypothesis is also supported by the findings. Students who received their printouts in less than one day scored significantly higher at the .05 level on the final examination than students receiving their printouts in about one day. Those receiving their printouts in about one week scored significantly lower than either of the other two groups. The effects on attitude were tested using a Likert-type scaled instrument. Analysis of covariance, using the aptitude score as covariate on a 3 x 3 design, was used to analyze the results which served as the basis for conclusions concerning the following research hypotheses. 3. More frequent access to the computer results in a more positive attitude by the students toward the computer. 4. Immediacy of feedback of computer programs results in a more positive attitude by the students toward the computer. The third hypothesis is not supported by the findings of this experiment. Students who were in the direct association with the computer three hours per week scored significantly lower at the .05 level on the attitude instrument than students who were in the one hour per semester group. The fourth hypothesis is not supported by the findings of this experiment. These conclusions are discussed in terms of earlier research in the effects of mode of processing on student learning of programming concepts and feedback schedules. In addition, suggestions for further research are offered.